Lecture Notes on Applied Linguistics

Alhaj, Ali

Lecture Notes on Applied Linguistics

For Students of Applied Linguistics and Translation

by associate professor.( two phds) Ali Alhaj (Author)

American Studies - Linguistics

Summary

Linguistics can be defined as "the scientific study of a language – any language – by virtue of description and analysis" – a major concept, introduced by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure(1857-1913), one of the pioneering early exponents of modern linguistics. According to him:
"the one and the only correct subject of linguistics is language, which involves in itself for the sake of itself" (Al-Saaran: 1962, p.49).
Some enormous attempts were made by Dr. Mohamoud Al-Sa'aran to explain and interpret F.D. Saussure's working words on linguistics in this context, as he points out:
"The researcher of a language studies a language for its sake. Also she/he studies it as it appears, without any oscillation. The researcher has no right to confine herself/himself to explaining and investigating only one aspect of a language, by reason of her//his highly commendation and to abandon the other attempts to explore the other aspect of language recklessly and wildly, because of her/his disapproval and disapprobation , as well as her//his frivolity of it. Furthermore, she/ he acts according to her/his own desire or for any other reason" (Ibid, p.51).
On his turn, Al-Sa'aran also explains the working words of F.D. Saussure "for its own sake", by saying that:
"the researcher studies language objectively in order to explore and probe its reality. She/he does not aim at achieving, for instance, either pedagogical objectives or any working goals. Fittingly, the researcher does not study language in order to enhance and to correct one of its aspects or to make any other amendments on it. But, she/he has to confine herself/himself to describing and analyzing language objectively" (Ibid, p.51).

Excerpt

A careful and close scrutiny of this accounts and interpretations revealed

the prevailing attitudes of the concepts of linguistics. The term ,,structural

linguistics" sometimes is widely used in an extremely specific concept to

refer to particular approaches of ,,theoretical/general linguistics", that is

in the framework of description and structural linguistics. In so far as the

subject attempts to establish general principles for study of all languages,

and to determine the characteristics and traits of human language, as

phenomenon, it may be called ,,general linguistics" or ,,theoretical

linguistics", when it concentrates on establishing the facts of a particular

language system or ,,descriptive linguistics", because the latter is the

source of ,,modern linguistics". It is worth mentioning that this concept

prevails in the linguists' minds up to the present. Some linguistics'

stringent viewpoints are worth mentioning here, when the term

,,linguistics" was considered deliberately by them as ,,general linguistics",

if it comes feely from any description.

The above-mentioned working definition of linguistics is no longer to be

comprehensive in our time, especially, after the development of

linguistics as a separate discipline, as well as the emergence of mental

cognitive attitudes whose associates have always been interested in

undertaking and conducting research on the linguistic operations inside

human brain, such as language acquisition, language development,

language comprehension, its use and its problems. These scholars were

more interested in the above-mentioned areas of language study than

other domains, such as description of language grammar formally and

structurally. Moreover, this working definition did not include the term

,,applied linguistics", the other branch of this discipline which embodies

and embraces ,,psycholinguistics", the current main subject of this book.

It is obvious that these working definitions did not include ,,linguistics" at

that time, because ,,general linguistics" is a branch of linguistics.

Furthermore, it was co significant and analogous with/to the ,,linguistics".

Additionally, ,,applied linguistics" did not emerge except in mid-

twentieth century. It is worth mentioning here that, the scholars of

descriptive linguistics did not admit or accept that ,,applied linguistics" is

a branch of ,,linguistics" except only much later.

Dr. Mahamoud Hejazi (1973:31) defined ,,modern linguistics"

extensively and effectively in concise mode of expression by saying that:

,,Linguistics in a simple definition is the scientific study of language"

(ibid, p.31). ,,The scientific study", as it was expressed by Dr.Hejazi,

means that, it includes all the branches of linguistics the old as well as the

new, either theoretical or practical. Additionally, the best, the surest and

the shred evidence of that, Dr.Hejazi successively and consecutively

adhered to this working definition many important various fields, so they

may be applicable to and some branches of linguistics. (Ibid, p.47).

Furthermore, studying language in a such way, may pave road in

searching some types of linguistic studies curricula, as well as

interpretations and explanations and other linguistic studies which were

not included in the working definition of ,,structural descriptive school of

linguistics (SDSL), but was assured and confirmed by ,,innate cognitive

theories".

Now, it is possible for us to define the branches and fields of linguistics

comprehensively and in detail by saying that ,,linguistics" is the scientific

study of human language' aspects: phonology, morphology, syntax,

semantics, stylistics, pragmatics and culture, as well as language

acquisition, language use, and methods of learning and teaching

language.

In view of the fact that ,,linguistics" is the general field of studying

linguistics science, besides undertaking and conducting studies and

research in all its aspects and disciplines, such as phonology,

morphology, syntax and mentioned a few, with special regards to these

working aspects that is from social and cultural, psychological, mental,

and physiological and biological standpoints, in addition to some related

matters that are relevant to language analysis, investigation, description,

acquisition, and language learning and teaching, as well as language use

in scientific domains such as mathematics, statistics, computer science

and technology of teaching languages.

On the basis of the above-mentioned accounts and definitions, the main

subject of (linguistics) is the language itself and aims at studying,

analyzing, acquiring, learning and teaching all its aspects, besides

interpretation and explanation. The intended language in this context: the

human language and with its general concepts, namely, general human

language on which we undertake and conduct research and studies which

may come out with principles and general language rules, that may rule

languages and control language use and language acquisitions. But this is

not specified to a certain language such as Arabic or French or English

language, unless these intended languages will be studied in the light of

linguistics rules or studied in order to reach the general rules of human

languages.

Linguistics is related one of modern sciences. As an academic discipline

the development of this subject has been recent and rapid, having become

particularly known and taught since the of the nineteenth century and the

beginning of twentieth century at the hands of European linguists such as

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), Nikilaj Trubetzkoy (1890-1938),

Roman Jacobson (1896-1982), Louis Hjelmslev (1899-1965), Andre

Martinet (1908-), as well as American linguists such as Leonard

Bloomfield (1887-1949), Edward Sapir (1884-1923), Otto Jespersen

(1860-1943), Franz Boas(1858-1942), Kenneth Pike(1912-), Zelling

Harris (1909-) and Noam Chomsky (1928-) and other outstanding

linguists. But, the traits of this discipline did not manifest itself until at

the end of the half of twentieth century.

Linguistics as an academic discipline has passed through different stages.

Each stage is characterized with various schools and attitudes which are

also distinguished with their different views towards the nature of

language and its curricula, descriptions, analysis, parsing,first/ second

language acquisition, as well as teaching and learning language. The most

prominent school that emerged at that time, ,,Structural School" and

which was established at the hands of the Swiss linguist F.D. Saussure

(1887-1913), one of the most early exponents of modern linguistics, made

a major contributions to the study of language structure with his

colleagues. It is worth mentioning that, the cognitive theory which was

headed by Noam Chomsky at the second half of twentieth century has

been influential on schools in many different fields. In other words, that

,,Cognitive theory" holds an unchallenged supremacy in the field and

domain of linguistic studies. From each of the school emerged a number

of theories, attitudes, approaches and concepts.

However, the emergence of linguistics with its different schools,

approaches and attitudes was considered by many scholars a revolution

over traditional curricula which were dominant on linguistic studies in the

West till the end of nineteenth century. Moreover, the traditional curricula

researchers were based on traditional rules of languages as well as

investigating old texts of languages by conducting and undertaking

studies of comparison and contrast on them.

Arabic Language in Arab Resources

In letter and spirit, the term ,,linguistics" was not a new science in Arabic

linguistic studies. The early Arab linguists used this term for the study of

vocabulary structurally and lexically, and then classified them in books or

dictionaries. Fittingly, some other linguists used the same term

,,linguistics" for the general study of language. The old linguists of

Arabic language did not distinguish between the term ,,linguistics"

which our present concern and the term ,,philology" because the word

,,philology" means ,,science", by virtue of its denotative or dictionary

meaning, and in accordance with the use of their intended term in

,,jurisprudence science".

Linguistics has other names in contemporary Arabic language, rather than

,,science of language" such as: ,,linguistics", ,,science of tongue", ,,al-

isaniyat", ,,al-alisineia", ,,general linguistics". Some of these names are

more common spread in other certain areas than others in Arab world.

The ,,science of language" and ,,linguistics" are used commonly in the

Arab East, additionally, the term ,,al-alisineia" is also used commonly in

Syria, and in Lebanon in particular(Bakla, p.732). Moreover, the term ,,al-

isaniyat" is used more commonly in the North West of Africa (Dr.Omer.

ibid, p.27). Furthermore, the uses of other terms did not spread, such as

,,Science of languages", ,,lisana",lisaniya" and ,,lisanyat".(Ba'alabki,

p.288) During the last ten years, these terms began to translocate and

move from Arab region to other regions and spread commonly in its non

original areas. (Al-Masdi, et. al. N.P).

All of the above-mentioned terms are equivalent to English term

,,linguistics" which means ,,science of language", French term

,,linguistique", German term ,,linguistica". Fittingly, the origin and

etymology of all these terms refer to the Latin word ,,Lingua" which

means ,,language or tongue" (Bakla, p.731).

Branches of Linguistics

As I mentioned earlier that, linguistics is divided into two major branches

including, ,,general linguistics" and ,,applied linguistics". Each branch of

these major branches embodies many branches which forks into more

smaller and narrower ones. General linguistics include and comprise the

following working branches:-

1. Historical Linguistics.

2. Comparative Linguistics.

3. Descriptive Linguistics.

4. Geolinguistics./ Geographical Linguistics.

5. Philology.

6. Phonetics (three branches of subject are generally recognized as

(articulatory, auditory and acoustic phonetics).

7. Phonology (which is concerned with the range and function of

sounds in specific language).

8. Morphology.

9. Syntax.

10.Semantics.

11. Lexicology.

12.Pragmatics.

13. Ethnolinguistcs.

Major branches of applied linguistics include the following:

1. Learning/teaching First/Foreign Language.

2. Language Pedagogy.

3. Language Testing.

4. Language Laboratories.

5. Psycholinguistics.

6. Neuro linguistics.

7. BioLINGUISTICS.

8. Sociolinguistics.

9. Computational Linguistics.

10. Lexicography.

11. Translation.

12. Literacy.

13. Speech Therapy.

14. Stylistics.

15. Discourse Analysis/ Text Linguistics.

16. Language Policies.

17. Language Planning.

It is worth mentioning that, some branches of general linguistics and

applied linguistics were not mentioned above, that is due to linguists'

almost and virtually unanimous disagreement about them, or may be

embodied in one or more branches. Some of these branches include:

Clinical Linguistics, Critical Linguistics., Statistical Linguistics.

Mathematical Linguistics (Crystal, ibid. 205).

It is worth mentioning that, the overlapping of linguistics and other

discipline has led to the setting up of new branches of the subject in both

pure and applied, such as lexicology, which is considered a theoretical

branch of linguistics. Equally enough, it overlaps with lexicography

which is considered a branch of applied linguistics.

On the one hand some of these disciplines can be embodied in general

linguistics and at the same time, they can be studied empirically on the

other; thus embodied in applied linguistics, for example, computational

linguistics can be classified under the branch of general linguistics or

theoretical linguistics, if it is used in linguistic analysis, on the one hand,

and as the same time can classified under the branch of applied

linguistics, if it is used or its results and application are also used in

learning language, for instance, language learning by using computer,

which is currently known as ,,Computer Assistance Language Learning

(CALL). It is important to cast some light on this kind of considerable

overlap between computational linguistics and statistical linguistics,

especially in some working functions and goals. Also, these two

disciplines need to be combined with each other in the field of linguistics

analysis by using computer.

Dr Ahmed Mukhtar Omer has mentioned that the savant and the scholar

Khaleel ibn Ahmed (60=140 AH) was the first person who created and

invented statistical linguistics, when he attempted to calculate the words

of Arabic language by using the two theories of permutations

for Arabic

alphabets in comparison with the size of active words in Arabic language,

which are bilateral, trilateral, quadrilateral, quinqueliteral. Dr. Omer

definitely merited and deserved further consideration as form of patterns

of computational linguistics studies (Dr. Omer: 104).

Furthermore, the language laboratories which can be used in linguistic

analysis is considered a theoretical discipline. However, it is considered

an applied discipline when used in language learning. Even, some of

European and American universities offer higher linguistics degrees and

certificates in language laboratory which is meant ,,Linguistic analysis".

It is worth mentioning that, ,,psycholinguistics" the main subject of the

current book- is considered a branch of applied linguistics, because it has

theoretical bases which are equivalent to its applied aspects., that is

,,Applied Linguistics" (There is American Linguistic Magazine entitled

,,Applied Linguistics"). Psycholinguistics is sometimes considered

linguistic, theoretical discipline on the basis of its correlation with innate

cognitive linguistics which was founded by Noam Chomsky. Hence most

issues of linguistics got transformed into of psycholinguistic issues.

Also, I want to draw your attention to the fact of some researchers who

see that linguistics cannot be divided into two major theoretical and

applied branches. However they considered these two majors branches

one discipline so that some sets of branches embodied under it. These

branches are correlated and interrelated directly with original linguistics.

Fittingly, the researcher can divide linguistics - by virtue of the system in

which each branch pursues into:-Historical Linguistics, Descriptive

Linguistics, General Linguistics, Functional Linguistics, Structural

Linguistics, Generative Transformational Linguistics, Comparative

Linguistics.

Applied Linguistics, Psycholinguistics, Sociolinguistics,

Ethno linguistics, Statistical Linguistics., Computational Linguistics etc.

(Lyons, pp.34-36).

Some researchers think that, applied linguistics is a major branch of

linguistics, but it is amalgamation of various disciplines which did not

have any correlation and interrelation with linguistics, except when it was

concerned with language learning and teaching, besides undertaking

research in its applied fields.(Samson, p H.T) This is structuralists' same

viewpoint, who did not believe in applied linguistic theory, they confine

it in the domain of education which is considered by them pedagogical

work or application for linguistic theories in language learning in the

most cases.

I think that, the several glaring inconsistencies in the viewpoints about the

reality of applied linguistics and its correlation and interrelation with

original linguistics negatively or positively are due to two main reasons:

The First Reason: Structural linguists' domination and supremacy over

most branches of applied linguistics and its program, in 1950s and 1960s,

especially in programs of learning/teaching \English as second language

in Britain and United State of America. These structural linguists such as:

Charles Fries and Robert Lado who confined applied linguistics to

practicing the theories of linguistics on language learning and teaching.

Moreover, the structural linguists confused applied linguistics with

linguistic applications which has led to provoke counter reaction to deny

this domination or supremacy which inculcated this concept /into

linguists.

(Al-Aseeli: Former Studies entitled Teaching Arabic Language between

Applied Linguistics & Linguistic Applications).

The Second Reason: Some theoretical linguists confined applied

linguistics to educational aspects, in view of the fact that, the other

aspects which involved in, did not belong to it. However, these theoretical

linguists took the view that the other aspects of applied linguistics are

general theoretical linguistics disciplines or psycholinguistic or

sociolinguistic disciplines. Fittingly, this view is limited and incapable, as

opposed as to the nature of emergence of sciences as well as its progress

and development.

Lecture (1)

Applied Linguistics

1. What is Language?

· Language may be defined as human speech in either spoken or

written from. The word is derived from (lingua), which in Latin

means tongue. Loosely speaking, it may mean by any system of

communication including traffic lights and signals.

· Language is the system of human communication which consists of the

structural arrangement of sounds (or their written representation) into

larger units: e.g. is morphemes, words, sentences, utterances. In common

usage it can also refer to non-human systems of communication such as

the' language' of bees, the ' language ' of dolphins.

· Many animals and even plant, species communicate with each

other. {HOW?}

It has been proposed that bee can communicate. When a worker finds a

source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance

routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar.

· Human language is unique (unusually good and special) {WHY?}

a) Being a symbolic communication system that is learned in of

instead of biologically inherited.

b] the properties of DISPLCEMENT which allows the users of

language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate

environment.Animal commutation considered to lack this property.

c) The forms of human language demonstrate property called

ARBTRARINESS: they do not,in any way, ,,fit" the objects they denote.

For example.the English word ,,dog" does not in any way physically

resemble the animal it stands for.

d) the properties of human language PRODUCTIVITY which is

linked to the fact that the potential number of utterances in any human

language is infinite.

Language may be defined as human speech in either spoken or written

from. The word is derived from (lingua), which in Latin means tongue.

Loosely speaking, it may mean by any system of communication

including traffic lights and signals.

2. What is Linguistics?

· Linguistics is usually defined as (the scientific study of language).

Such statement, however, raises two further questions: What do we

mean by ,,scientific"? And what do we mean by ,,language"? The

first one can be answered relatively easily but the second needs to

be examined more fully. When we say that linguistics aims to be

scientific, we mean that he attempts to study languages in much the

same way as a scientist studies physics or chemistry, that is

systematically, and as far as possible without prejudice. It means

observing language use forming hypotheses about it, testing these

hypotheses and then refining them on the basis of the evidence

collected.

· Linguistics, i, e, the science of language, can be divided in to two

major branches: theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.

Theoretical linguistics is branched into many fields. The branch of

linguistic that studies the historical development of language is called

diachronic linguistic, or philology

Lecture (2)

Various Definitions of Applied Linguistics.

A. Applied linguistics is a branch of linguistics that addresses

language problems in real-world context.

B. Applied linguistics is the utilization of the knowledge about the

nurture of language achieved by linguistics research for the

improvement of the efficiency of some practical task in which

language is a central component.

C. Applied linguistics is the academic discipline concerned with the

relation of knowledge about language to decision making in the

real world.

· Language is at the heart of human life. Without it, many of

our most important activities are inconceivable.

· The possession of language, perhaps more than any other

attribute, distinguished human from other animals.

· To understand our humanity, one must understand the nature

of language that makes us human.

· language is the source of human life and power.

· language use, then, is in many ways a natural phenomenon

beyond conscious control.

· there are aspects of language use in which we can intervene

and about which, consequently, there are decisions there are

many questions to be asked, such as:

A. What language skills should children attain beyond

basic literacy?

B. Should children speak a dialect be encouraged to

maintain it or steered towards the standard form of a

language?

C. In communities with more than one language which

ones should be used in schools?

D. Should deaf children learn a sign language?

E. Should everyone learn a foreign languages, and if

so, which one ones?

F. Should every child study literature?.

G. Language Changes, should change be controlled?

H. Some language are dying, Should that be prevented

I. Is it better for people to learn each other's languages

or use translation?

J. Should the growth of English as the international

lingua franca be welcomed or deplored?

· All of these questions, and many more like them need,

demand answer

· To answer them it seems reasonable that we should set out to

investigate and understand the facts of language use.

· These are the aims and aspiration of applied linguistics.

It is the academic discipline concerned with the relation of

knowledge about language to decision making in the real

world. The end.

Self-Assessment (2)

1) What is Applied Linguistics?

...

2) What is the difference between theoretical linguistics and applied

linguistics?

...

3) Discuss briefly the linguistic and educational questions needed to

be answered and investigated by using an academic discipline

concerned with the relations of knowledge about language to

decision making in the real world.

a) ...

...

b) ...

...

c) ...

...

d) ...

...

e) ...

...

f) ...

...

g) ...

...

h) ...

...

i) ...

...

4) ...

...

5) Choose the best answer from the following alternatives:

a) In recent decades, applied linguistics has been a ...

field.

i. polemic.

ii. natural.

iii. conscious.

b) Linguistics is a ... study of language.

i. perspective.

ii. scientific

iii. sought.

c) One of the major applications of applied linguistics to the

real world activities has been its applications to :

i. Language testing.

ii. Language teaching

iii. A+ B

d) Wherever human exist, ... exists.

i. applied linguistics.

ii. Linguistics.

iii. language

Lecture (3)

The Scope of Applied Linguistics

· Applied linguistics is the empirical investigation of real world

problem in which language is a central issue.

· The focus of Applied Linguistics is on trying to resolve language

based problems that people encounter in the real world, whether

they be learners, teachers, supervisors, academic, lawyers, service

providers, those who needs social services, test makers, policy

developers, dictionary makers, translators, or a whole range of

clients.

· Grabes(2000:9) notes that distinguishing between what pure

linguistics and Applied linguistics with is to distinguish between

theory and practice :

,,Pure Linguistics or Theatrical Linguistics is a field of a scientific

investigation.Applied Linguistics is an activity of making use of

the available body of knowledge"

The scope Applied Linguistics remains rather vague.

Applied is in our view a coherent activity which theories through

a speculative and empirical investigations real world problems in

which language a central issue.

to classify these problems so the following map out the scopes of

Applied Linguistics:

Language and

education

Language, work and

law

Language,

information and

effect.

1srt language

education

Workshop

communication

Literary stylistics

Additional-

language education

Language planning

Discourse analysis

Language education

Forensic linguistics

Translation and

interpretation

Clinical linguistics

Information design

(typography)

Language testing

Lexicography

Second language means when someone studies their society's

majority or official language which is not their home land. Foreign-

language education, when someone studies the language of another

country.

Self-Assessment (3)

1. What is the focus of Applied Linguistics?

...

2. Grabes (2000:9) notes that distinguishing between what pure

linguistics and Applied linguistics with is to distinguish between

theory and practice. Discuss.

...

3. What are the subfields of Applied Linguistics?

1. ...

...

2. ...

3. ...

4. ...

...

5. ...

6. ...

...

7. ...

...

8. ...

...

9. ...

...

10. ...

...

11. ...

12. ...

13. ...

4. Highlight the differences between Second-language education and

foreign-language education?

...

5. Define the Following Linguistic Terms briefly:

a. Lexicography...

...

b. Forensiclinguistics...

...

c. Clinicallinguistics...

...

d. Languagetesting:...

...

Lecture (4)

Linguistics and Applied Linguistics: a Difficult Relationship

· The difference between Linguistics and Applied Linguistics is not

just that Linguistics deals with theory while AL deals with

applications but that Al tries to develop language themes of its own

which are more relevant to the questions. Applied Linguistics seeks

to answer than those developed by theatrical linguistics.

· Linguistics is the academic discipline concerned with study of

language in general.

· Linguistics is bound to represent an abstract idealization of

language rather than the way it is experienced in the real world

why?

Because like any discipline, linguistics looks for generalities

underlying actual appearance.

Generative linguistics introduced by Noam Chomsky from the late

1950s.

In Chomsky's view the proper subject matter of linguistics should

be representation by of language in the mind (competence), rather

than the way in which people actually use language in everyday

life (performance).

Competence means: refers to one's underlying knowledge of a

system, event, of fact. It is the non-observable ability to do

something, to perform something.

Performance means: is the overtly observable and concreter

manifestation or realization of competence. It is the actual doing of

something ,,waking, speaking,

Chomsky likened competence to an ,,idealized" speaker-hears who

does not display such performance variables as memory

limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, errors and

hesitation phenomena, such ad as repeat, false starts, pauses,

omissions, and additions.

Chomsky's point was that a theory of language had to be a theory

of competence.

Sociolinguistics: endeavors to find systematic relationships

between social groupings and context.

Corpus linguistics: is the study of language as expressed in simple

or real world.

Applied Linguistics: is not simply a matter of matching up

findings about language with pre-existing problems but of using

findings to explore how the perception of problems might be

changed.

Applied Linguistics is a quest for common ground. It established a

reciprocal relationship between experience and expertise, between

professional concerns with language problems and linguistics.

Details

Pages
Type of Edition: Originalausgabe
Publication Year: 2015
ISBN (PDF): 9783954894024
File size: 893 KB
Language: English
Institution / College: Jazan University - KSA
Publication date: 2015 (December)
Keywords: Ferdinand de Saussure Guidebook Lecture notes Applied linguistics Language Translation Teaching Method
Product Safety: Anchor Academic Publishing

Author

associate professor.( two phds) Ali Alhaj (Author)

Lecture Notes on Applied Linguistics

Summary

Excerpt

Table Of Contents

Details

Author

associate professor.( two phds) Ali Alhaj (Author)