Attitudes and Perceptions toward Physical Education: A Study in Secondary School Students
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Textbook
156 Pages
Summary
Physical education teaching and learning efforts obviously target the student. Like parents, teachers, administrators and any other directly or indirectly involved parties, students do have opinions based on their experience on their respective physical education classes and physical education in general. These opinions, or so-called attitudes, are important to research due to their potential of giving insight to the learner’s perspective, which may also serve as an authentic feedback from the student. This study investigated German secondary school students’ attitudes toward physical education. Results have the intention to reveal what attitudes towards physical education German students have and which factors influence these attitudes. The study sample contained students from the different school types Gymnasium, Realschule, and Haupt-/Werkrealschule. The students were surveyed via questionnaire that was developed based on validated research instruments from prior studies in the field. Data was analyzed integrating independent variables such as students' gender, physical education grade, grade point average, body mass index, socioeconomic status, type of school, citizenship, and the exercise and physical activity behavior of students, their parents and their peers.
Excerpt
Table Of Contents
4
Figure 15: Distribution of Students' BMI. ... 84
Figure 14: Distribution of Students' SES. ... 85
Figure 17: Distribution of Students' Grade Point Averages. ... 86
Figure 18: Distribution of Students' Attitudes. ... 93
Figure 19: Simple Linear Regression for the variables Attitude and Physical
Education Grade. ... 100
Figure 20: Attitudes Separated according to Migration Background. ... 102
Figure 21: Mean Attitudes for the two SES groups. ... 104
Figure 22: Mean Attitudes for the Three Classified BMI Groups. ... 106
Figure 23: Mean Attitudes Separated according to Exercise Frequency. ... 108
Figure 22: Mean Attitudes Separated according to Exercise Frequency. ... 110
Figure 25: Mean Attitudes Separated according to Students' Parents' Physical
Activity Frequency. ... 113
5
List of Tables
Table 1: Overview of Studies on Students' Attitudes toward Physical Education. ... 50
Table 2: Instrument for assessing students' attitudes towards physical education
(Subramaniam & Silverman, 2000) ... 58
Table 3: Gender Distribution of the Sample. ... 78
Table 4: Sample Composition regarding the Type of School. ... 79
Table 5: Descriptive Statistics of the Students' Age. ... 80
Table 6: Students' BMI as classified according to the WHO (2000, 9). ... 85
Table 7: Distribution of Students' Physical Education Grades. ... 87
Table 8: Exercise Behavior of Students. ... 88
Table 9: Physical Activity Behavior of Students ... 88
Table 10: Exercise Behavior of Students' Peers. ... 89
Table 11: Physical Activity Behavior of Students' Peers. ... 89
Table 12: Exercise Frequency of Students' Parents. ... 90
Table 13: Physical Activity Frequency of Students' Parents. ... 90
Table 14: Statistics of the Different Conceptualizations of Attitude. ... 92
Table 15: Results of the t-test for Random Samples. ... 95
Table 16: t-test investigating the differences regarding gender. ... 96
6
Table 17: Descriptive Statistics regarding the Different Types of School. ... 96
Table 18: One-way ANOVA examining differences regarding the types of school. ... 97
Table 19: Post-hoc Test regarding the Types of School. ... 97
Table 20: Spearman's Rho and Significance for Grade Point Average and Attitude. ... 99
Table 21: Spearman's Rho and Significance for Physical Education Grade and
Attitude. ... 100
Table 22: t-test Investigation of the Differences in Attitude regarding Migration
Background. ... 102
Table 23: t-test Investigation of the Differences in Attitude regarding the SES. ... 104
Table 24: t-test Investigation of the Differences in Attitude regarding the
Classified BMI. ... 106
Table 25: Data of the post-hoc Test for Differences concerning Students'
Exercise Behavior. ... 109
Table 26: Data of the post-hoc Test for Differences concerning Students'
Exercise Behavior. ... 109
Table 27: Data of the post-hoc Test for Differences concerning Students'
Parents' Exercise Behavior. ... 112
Table 28: Descriptive Data concerning Students' Attitudes divided according to
Students' Peers' Exercise Behavior. ... 114
Table 29: Data of the Post-Hoc Test for Differences concerning Students' Peers'
Exercise Behavior. ... 115
7
Table 30: Descriptive Data concerning Students' Peers' Physical Activity
Behavior. ... 115
Table 31: Data of the post-hoc Test for Differences concerning Students' Peers'
Physical Activity Behavior. ... 116
8
Abstract
Physical education teaching and learning efforts obviously target the student. Like
parents, teachers, administrators and any other directly or indirectly involved parties,
students do have opinions based on their experience on their respective physical
education classes and physical education in general. These opinions, or so-called
attitudes, are important to research due to their potential of giving insight to the
learner's perspective, which may also serve as an authentic feedback from the student.
This study investigated German secondary school students' attitudes toward physical
education. Results have the intention to reveal what attitudes towards physical
education German students have and which factors influence these attitudes. The study
sample contained students from the different school types Gymnasium, Realschule, and
Haupt-/Werkrealschule. The students were surveyed via questionnaire that was
developed based on validated research instruments from prior studies in the field. Data
was analyzed integrating independent variables such as students' gender, physical
education grade, grade point average, body mass index, socioeconomic status, type of
school, citizenship, and the exercise and physical activity behavior of students, their
parents and their peers.
Keywords: physical education, attitude, school students, student attitudes, secondary
school students, attitude measures
9
1
Introduction
Investigating physical education means to take all involved parties and individuals into
account. Physical education teachers and their students will usually come into one's
mind when thinking of direct involvement in regular physical education classes.
Parents, principals, administrators, college level lecturers and professors, and policy
makers may also be considered for mutual interactions and discourse regarding physical
education.
Although students are certainly the primary recipients of physical education teaching
efforts, only few research-oriented efforts have been attempted to tackle the students'
perspectives regarding physical education on the contrary (Dyson, 2006). Despite the
rich empirical research tradition on physical education, there is only little research on
the point of view of the students, and their perceptions and attitudes towards physical
education (Graber, 2001).
In 2006, the DSB published the SPRINT-Studie as one of the most recent and most
frequently discussed German empirical investigation of physical education classes.
1
The
study examined several aspects of physical education classes such as curriculum, state
of sports facilities and others (cf. Brettschneider & Kuhlmann, 2006, 12ff). The point of
view of the students and their perceptions and attitudes towards physical education,
however, was severely neglected. Besides the SPRINT-Studie (Deutscher Sportbund,
2006), almost no studies in the field of physical education classes exist in Germany. In
1
SPRINT is the abbreviation for Sportunterricht in Deutschland and was commissioned by the DSB as
a result of a lack of empirical investigation in the field of physical education classes. The research was
conducted by eight research groups from different German universities. Purpose of the study was to
investigate the situation of physical education classes in German schools and to offer a variety of
guidance how to improve the current situation (cf. DSB, 2006). See also chapter 2 for further discussion.
10
contrast, on an international level, many investigations have been conducted, all of
which focus on different aspects of physical education.
Those studies, which are concerned with the perceptions and attitudes of students
towards physical education classes basically solely focus on the methods to examine
perceptions and attitudes and the general shape of perceptions and attitudes (cf. e.g.,
Phillips & Silverman, 2012; Subramaniam & Silverman, 2000).
The importance of students' positive attitudes towards physical education emerges out
of the suggestion that students who developed a positive attitude to physical education
and physical activity will more likely adopt a physically active lifestyle (Solmon & Lee,
1996; Wallhead & Buckworth, 2004). In addition, a positive attitude to one subject, in
this case physical education may also indirectly influence students' attitudes towards
school and education in general (Bibik, Goodwin, & Orsega-Smith, 2007), as well as
academic achievement (Howie & Pate, 2012).
The influence of different factors on the perceptions and attitudes of students was hardly
taken into account. Since other studies in the field of physical education have shown
that e.g., gender has a major influence on self-perception or motivation
2
, it seems to be
logical to conclude that several factors do influence the perceptions and attitudes of
students, as well. The important question that needs to be examined therefore is, which
factors influence the students' perceptions and attitudes towards physical education
classes.
Starting from this question, several other important questions arise: how can
perceptions and attitudes be measured? What are attitudes and perceptions? How can we
define perceptions and attitudes? Are those perceptions and attitudes also influenced by
2
International studies in the field of physical education classes have shown that e.g., the self-perception
of students is influenced by gender and age (cf. e.g., Maiano, Ninot, & Bilard, 2004). See also chapter 2
for further discussion.
11
the degree of physical and sporting activity? Are they influenced by the parents' or the
friends' point of view.
These questions are especially interesting for teachers and future teachers. They should
know how attitudes are formed and how they are developed in reality. This knowledge
should help to understand complex contexts of physical education classes, as well as the
varying behavior of students. Besides, it would be helpful to know how the different
aspects of physical education classes influence the perceptions and attitudes of students.
Content of the curriculum or the behavior of the teacher may be such aspects, only to
name a few. The present study's underlying idea of perceptions and attitudes consisting
of two components
3
could reveal, which aspects students place value on and by which
aspects they are influenced emotionally. The answers to the above questions should also
make teachers more sensitive to the reasons of students' behavior.
The here presented study is interested and concerned with those questions, as well. Its
purpose is not only to find out how perceptions and attitudes of students are shaped, but
to a greater degree to reveal which factors influence the perceptions and attitudes of
students. The present study therefore picks up the above raised questions to further
investigate the field of physical education classes. In the first part, the theoretical
foundation for the study will be presented. On the basis of current literature, the current
status of research in the field of physical education will be reviewed to lay ground for
the empirical part of the study. First, key terms and concepts that are important for the
investigation of the perceptions and attitudes will be defined to mark the boundaries of
the research. Since the purpose of this study is to provide results not only for the
German research field, but on an international level, the subject of German physical
education is defined thoroughly. The paper will then turn to the current findings related
to motivation, self-perception, health, and eventually to the perceptions and attitudes in
3
Different models have been proposed for the definition of attitudes (cf. e.g., Oppenheim, 2000). The
different approaches and the here-applied model will be further discussed in chapter 2.
12
the context of physical education classes. It is then discussed, how methods and
instruments can be used to assess and measure attitudes and perceptions. In the second
part of the paper, the actual empirical study will be presented. It contains the above
raised research questions and underlying hypothesis and describes the procedure of the
study. Therefore, the methods and instruments that have been used to conduct the
present study are expounded. Afterward, the results of the study will be described and
analyzed, before, in the last part, the results will be discussed regarding the purpose of
the study and in the context of existing literature and already conducted studies.
13
2
Review of Current Literature
In this chapter, the theoretical basis for further investigation and the empirical study are
lined out. All the key terms and concepts that are essential to understand and work with
the subject of the present study are defined in this chapter. It will then turn to the current
state of research and discuss the importance of motivation, self-concept and health
behavior for physical activity and exercise, and for physical education. Afterward,
findings on perceptions and attitudes toward physical education classes will be lined
out. Furthermore, it will also look at the possibilities of investigation and at the so far
proposed and used methods and instruments.
2.1
Definition of Key Terms and Concepts
It might look easy and trivial to define the terms 'perception' or 'attitude', but the further
process of investigation is in fact determined by how those terms are defined. Besides,
the question of how German physical education classes are determined, or to be more
precise, of what they consist, influences the empirical study. Moreover, a distinction
between physical activity and exercise is necessary to understand existing research and
the instrument used in the present study. As already outlined above, this section will
deal with those key terms and concepts that need to be taken into account to further
investigate the whole field of perceptions and attitudes of students toward physical
education classes.
2.1.1
Attitude
The term 'attitude(s)' is omnipresent in our everyday lives, from a psychological point of
view, however, the term has not been used correctly in society (cf. Silvermann &
Subramaniam 1999, p. 97). In fact, attitude has been one of the most important subjects
14
in social psychology (cf. Maderthaner, 2008, p. 337), and even within the field of
science, attitude has always been a concept of much controversy.
From a psychological point of view, however, the term has not been used correctly in
society (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999). In fact, attitude has been one of the most
important subjects in social psychology (Allport, 1935; Myers, 2012), and even within
the field of science, attitude has always been a concept of much controversy. As
Fishbein and Ajzen (1975, p. 1) have stated, it "is characterized by an embarrassing
degree of ambiguity and confusion". As the history of attitude related research
indicates, attitudes have a major influence on behavior (Ajzen, 2007), so it is crucial to
understand and illustrate the role attitudes occupy in shaping and affecting behavior.
The significance that is attributed to attitude relating to behavior shaping, however,
differs between the various psychological approaches.
The Theory of Reasoned Action, which can be traced back to the works of Martin
Fishbein with the assistance of Icek Ajzen (1975), has been widely used and accepted to
describe the relation between attitude and behavior. In a nutshell, this theory assumes
that behavior can be described as a reasoned process, in which a person forms two kinds
of beliefs, that is behavioral and normative beliefs. The prior are beliefs about the
consequences of behavior, the latter are beliefs about important persons' thoughts
relating to the realization of the intended behavior (cf. Trafimov, 2007, p. 24). Trafimov
(2007, p. 24) further states that people also evaluate the consequences of behavioral
beliefs and the importance of conforming to other people. The sum of all those
normative beliefs and their evaluations is called the subjective norm and the sum of all
behavioral beliefs and the corresponding evaluations is called attitude. Together, those
two factors determine the behavioral intention, which in turn influences the realization
of a particular behavior (cf. Madden, Ellen, & Ajzen, 1992, p. 3).
Figure 1 shows models of the Theory of Reasoned Action and of the Theory of Planned
Behavior.
15
Figure 1: A scheme of the Theory of Reasoned Action (A) and the Theory of
Planned Behavior (B) (Source: Madden et al., 1992, p.4).
Restrictions to the Theory of Reasoned Action have been posed, however, such that this
theory applies only to voluntary acts (Sheppard, Hartwick, & Warshaw, 1988). Ajzen
(1985) proposed an extension of this model, including perceived behavioral control into
the scheme of the formation of behavior. In short, the introduction of this additional
module extends the above expressed border of purely intentional acts (Madden et al.,
16
1992). The important conclusion of this theory is that attitude is in fact a major
determinant of behavior. The knowledge about the attitude of a person is therefore
important to adapt oneself to the behavior of others (cf. Leiße, 2006, p. 159; Smith &
Mackie, 2007).
Other approaches deal with the conceptualization of the isolated module of attitude to
come to terms with what attitude itself actually displays. According to Eagly and
Chaiken (1998), attitude is the summarized evaluation of an object. It is an individual's
learned tendency to evaluate a phenomenon a certain way. Basis for an attitude is the
existence of a particular object towards which an attitude is formed and the process of
an evaluation. The prior can represent any matter people can imagine or perceive,
abstract or concrete. From this chapter's perspective, this reference object is the
physical education class. On the other hand, the evaluation of the object at hand is the
decisive connection between the latter and the resulting behavior (Fazio & Towles-
Schwen, 1999). To explain the process of this evaluation and thus the formation of
attitudes, different models have been introduced.
The proponents of the single-component model see attitude as uni-dimensional
construct (Bohner & Wänke, 2002). The only component taken into account in this
approach is usually the affective dimension (Subramaniam & Silverman, 2000). The
affective dimension displays feelings and emotions and the corresponding evaluation of
objects. Fazio and Zanna (1981, p. 162) define attitude as "evaluative feeling that is
evoked by a given object" which shows the above mentioned reference to emotions.
Furthermore, most of the research in the field of attitude relied on this uni-dimensional
concept of attitude (Bagozzi & Burnkrant, 1979).
Other researchers suggested a two-component view of attitude (Oppenheim, 2000). In
addition to the affective dimension, a second, so called cognitive dimension is
introduced. Whereas the affective dimension again refers to the emotions and feelings a
17
person has towards an object, the cognitive dimension displays beliefs and knowledge
about the characteristics of the object at hand (Hogg & Vaughan, 2008, p. 149).
According to Bohner (2002, p. 267), attitude is as mentioned above "the
summarized evaluation of an object".
4
Basis for an attitude is the existence of a
particular object toward which an attitude is formed and the process of an evaluation.
The prior can represent any matter people can imagine or perceive, abstract or concrete
(cf. Bohner, 2002, p. 267). In the present study, this reference object is the physical
education class. On the other hand, the evaluation of the object at hand is the decisive
connection between the latter and the resulting behavior (cf. Meinefeld, 1977, p. 17). To
explain the process of this evaluation and thus the formation of attitudes, different
models have been introduced.
The proponents of the single-component model see attitude as uni-dimensional (cf. e.g.,
Bohner & Wänke, 2002). The only component taken into account in this approach is
usually the affective dimension (cf. Subramaniam & Silvermann, 2000, p. 30). The
affective dimension displays feelings and emotions and the corresponding evaluation of
objects. Fazio and Zanna (1981, p. 162) define attitude as "evaluative feeling that is
evoked by a given object", which shows the above mentioned reference to emotions.
Meinefeld (1977, p. 37) further indicates that most of the research in the field of attitude
relies on this uni-dimensional concept of attitude
5
, which is confirmed by Bagozzi and
Burnkrant (1979).
The third approach explaining attitude is the multi-component model (cf. e.g., Triandis,
1971). Besides the above-mentioned affective and cognitive dimension, a behavioral
4
Translated from German; the original passage quotes as follows: "[...] definieren Einstellung als eine
zusammenfassende Bewertung eines Gegenstandes [...]"(Bohner, 2002, p. 267).
5
Moreover, Meinefeld (1977, p. 37) also traces the uni-dimensional concept of attitude and the
mentioned uni-dimensional measurement back to one of the most influential psychologists, Louis
Thurstone, who defined attitude as an emotion related to a particular object.
18
component exists. This behavioral component comprises both actions toward the object
and intentions to act (Ajzen, 2007, p. 4).
6
However, this model has been criticized by
various researchers as placing too much emphasis on the overt behavior, whereas in
empirical studies the highest correlations were usually found between the attitude and
the behavioral intention (McGuire, 1989, p. 41).
Despite these various approaches, however, it is important to emphasize the role attitude
plays in behavior formation. The importance of this role might vary between the
approaches, but no matter which model is used to describe attitude, the concept is
always given an influencing role concerning behavior formation. In this study, the two-
dimensional concept of attitude was used to investigate students' attitudes toward
physical education classes.
7
2.1.2
Perception
Similar to the above-discussed attitudes, the usage of the term perception is common in
ordinary speech. Again, the question is how to define this concept to take hold of a
universal understanding of this concept. As Hagendorf, Müller, Krummenacher, and
Schubert (2011) suggest, a perception is not just an accurate reflection of the external
world, but rather a complex procedure.
8
Perception can be defined as "a process of
interpreting and organizing information provided by the sensory organs" (Hagendorf et
6
The three dimensions of attitude in this model are also labeled as response categories. It is worth
noting at this point that within this multi-dimensional model psychologists also distinguish between a
verbal and a non-verbal response mode. The fact that it is typical to use cognitive or affective responses
on the verbal side and behavioral responses on the non-verbal side accounts for the difference of what
people say and how they actually act. Whereas critics have often argued that the verbal mode reflects the
attitude and the non-verbal mode reflects behavior, advocates of this model have claimed both to be
observable behaviors, and that both mirror an adjacent attitude (cf. Ajzen 1989, 244f).
7
Cf. chapter 2.3 for more precise discussion.
8
Cf. Sternberg & Sternberg (2012).
19
al., 2011, p. 5).
9
Perception is usually seen as an unconscious process, even if we of
course sometimes perceive our environment consciously. As the quotation above
indicates, the information that should be processed must necessarily be provided by
involved organs. The sensory organs and the brain register the perceivable (physical and
chemical) stimuli (cf. Scharfetter, 2010, p. 184).
On a physiological level, the processing of information from sensory organs is regulated
by neurons (cf. Pomerantz, 2003; Saladin 2007, p. 443).
10
At the same time, the
perception does not, as indicated above, reflect all the stimuli around us, but selects
those information that seem to be important in the respective situation (cf. Hagendorf et
al., 2011, p. 8; Kolb & Whishaw, 2009). To determine the importance of perceivable
information, the latter is mixed with feelings and experiences (cf. Hoffmann 2004, p.
18; Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012).
In brief, a perception basically is the absorption of an external stimulus, the recognition
of this stimulus by the brain according to previous experiences, its organization, and
interpretation (cf. Pickens, 2005, p. 52). Result of this procedure is that various
participants have different perceptions of the same situation, and that the perception
always refers a purely subjective concept.
Figure 2 displays the complex process of the perception processing system.
9
Translated from German; the original passage quotes as follows: "Wahrnehmung ist ein Prozess, mit
dem wir die Informationen, die von den Sinnessystemen bereitgestellt werden, organisieren und
interpretieren." (Hagendorf et al., 2011, p. 5).
10
Of course, this description only superficially touches the topic of the complex nervous system. At this
point, however, it does not seem necessary to go into detail concerning this topic. For further information
see Saladin (2007). Similarly, the various physical and chemical theories of perception are not mentioned
here. See Robinson (1994) for further information concerning this topic.
20
Figure 2: The Perception Processing System (Source: Pickens, 2005, p. 57).
As the above connection already indicates, perceptions seem to be influenced by a
variety of other concepts. Hausmann (2009, p. 27) has listed different factors
influencing perceptions to a certain degree.
11
The more knowledge one has about a
certain object or situation, the more one will perceive of this object. If we expect certain
things to happen, we will already perceive the initial indicators of the corresponding
information. Needs and wishes do also reinforce the perception of related stimuli. Last
but not least, the attitude filters what we perceive. People will above all perceive that
information that accord with their attitudes. One of the best examples how attitudes
influence perception are prejudgments and stereotypes. Both are generalizing attitudes
that result in corresponding emotions and behavior, and at the same time influence what
11
Cf. Johns & Saks (2008).
21
one perceives of the respective object (cf. Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007;
Maderthaner 2008, p. 338).
Figure 3: The Mutual Influence of Attitude and Perception (Source: Rokeach, 1973, as
printed in Seel, 2003, p. 125).
22
At the same time, Seel (2003, p. 125) indicates that perception also influences attitude.
12
Since attitudes need to be formed sometime, they are necessarily preceded by the
perception of information concerning the object the attitude is formed on. These
perceptions include perceptions of oneself, the own behavior, the external world and
attitudes and behaviors of others (cf. Seel, 2003, p. 125). Table 3 shows the mutual
influence of attitude and perception (Rokeach, 1973, as printed in Seel, 2003, p. 125).
As we have seen, perception is a difficult concept to grasp. When there is talk of
perceptions in this study, it is important to relate this to the mentioned subjective
concept of absorbing selected stimuli and information depending on one's previous
knowledge, experiences and feelings. One of the most important facts is its relation to
attitude. Proof has been given as illustrated above that the two concepts are
interdependent, that is attitude influences perception and by the same token is
influenced by the latter (Bohner & Wänke, 2002).
2.1.3
Elements of Physical Education Classes
School sport and physical education classes constitute a broad field, in which a lot of
research has been conducted and many theories have been established. The first
condition that needs to be imposed on the subject here is the restriction of the
subsequently discussed range of physical education classes to Germany. Since a
German University realized this study and the data conducted in German schools, this
focus on a definition of German physical education classes is essential.
Among the most intensively investigated areas are the legitimation and the function of
physical education classes (cf. e.g., Balz & Neumann, 1999), concepts and methods of
12
Cf. Pickens (2005).
23
school sports (cf. e.g., Neumann & Balz, 2004) or the elements of good physical
education classes (cf. Gebken, 2005).
13
The question, which is relevant for this study, though, is the determination of central
modules that constitute the every day physical education class. To understand the
perceptions and attitudes of students toward the physical education class, the answer to
the question at hand is necessary. Only then is it possible to correctly investigate the
attitudes of students toward the intended object that is, physical education classes in
Germany.
Scherler (2000) presents eight key elements of the institutionalized sport and thus tries
to define what physical education actually means. Thienes (2008) takes this up and
further explains those key elements.
The first element is its obligatory status. Students are obliged to participate in physical
education classes to be more precise not only to attend the classes but also to
participate actively. The amount of physical education classes per week varies from
state to state, from school to school and even within the different grades.
14
The second feature of school sport is the goal orientation. Rather than being executed
for a self-purpose, physical activity in school is connected to specialist purposes. This
feature is of course closely related to the above-mentioned legitimation of physical
13
Event though the above-mentioned fields of research basically do not play a decisive role in
investigation of students' attitudes, it is worth mentioning the central ideas of a few. Balz and Neumann
(1999) describe a dual function of physical education. See also below in this chapter for further
explanation. Meanwhile, Gebken (2005) identifies 8 elements of good physical education classes: a clear
structure; an optimal time of exercise for students; a variety of methods; coherence of goals, contents and
methods; good atmosphere; the usage of feedback; individual support; transparency of expectations and
control of performances.
14
Interestingly enough, the amount of physical activity outside school may vary from student to student.
This unequal distribution and thus the unequal competence of various students leads to one of the school
sport's most important dilemmas, that is its acceptance. See also chapter 2.2 for further information.
24
education classes. It is those specialist purposes that legitimate school sport because it
serves a higher purpose, on a subject-specific or a scholastic level.
15
The third issue is the selection of the content of physical education classes. This content
is partly regulated by curricula of the concerned state, however, the individual schools
can define focuses for their physical education classes within a given frame.
Fourth, the need for marks as in all the other school subjects is a major constituent
of physical education class. In Germany, however, the mark for school sports alone is
not relevant for moving up in the next grade. Since the grading in general is a
controversial issue, much research has been conducted in the field of physical education
class grading and many recommendations have been made (cf. e.g., Balz & Kuhlmann,
2003).
The fifth property is the employment of specialist subject teachers and thus the
management by an expert. Physical education teachers have to adopt several roles at
once, and, as the facilitator, much depends on the ability of the teacher. According to
Bräutigam (2011a, p. 21), the main tasks of a physical education teacher are teaching,
educating, assessing, advising and innovating. As a result, the teacher is responsible for
the realization of the above-mentioned elements and the legitimation of physical
education classes. Moreover, as a matter of fact, teachers are usually subject to
evaluation and criticism of students, parents and other observers (cf. Balz, Bräutigam,
Miethling & Wolters, 2011, p. 121).
The grouping in age groups constitutes the sixth element of the physical education class
(cf. Thienes, 2008, p. 236). This aspect, though, is of course due to the organization of
the school as institution. Concerning school sport, this element may be further restricted
to groupings according to gender. Most schools have at least from grade 7 to grade 11
15
A closer examination of the legitimation of school sports follows later in this chapter.
25
grades split up in male and female physical education grades. This merging of all the
grades of one level leads to the students getting in touch with peers of parallel classes,
as well. Thus, students do not only come in contact with their well-known classmates,
but also with other students from other classes. Besides the sport's well-known quality
of social interaction, physical education classes can therefore be seen as a field of even
more and enhanced interaction.
The last two characteristics Scherler (2000) presents are rather limitations to the
physical education class, namely the time restriction and the spatial and material
situation. The time restriction results from the nature of the subject: getting to the sport
facilities and getting dressed for the class reduces the time left for physical education
drastically. In a 45-minute class, the above-mentioned restrictions shorten the time left
to 35 minutes (cf. Scherler, 2000, p. 53). Taking into account that two to three lessons
per week are the average amount of physical education classes, this fact gives even
more importance to the time situation of school sport, especially with regard to the fact
that many topics cannot be treated in 45 minutes (cf. Thienes, 2008, p. 240).
The spatial and material problem results from the fact that physical education classes
can neither be performed in the normal class room nor due to legal and organizational
issues in special public places. Thus, the physical education classes have to take place
in gyms or, in summer, on other sports fields. The material conditions of these
facilities, in turn, influence the content of school sport. Findings of the SPRINT-Studie
(DSB, 2006, p. 14) moan a severe restriction of school sport due to the spatial and
material situation.
These constitutive elements of physical education classes are necessary to understand
what physical education classes actually embody, and they are therefore the key to
assess and investigate students' attitudes and perceptions toward the subject of school
sport.
26
In addition to the above discussed, the principles and the function of the
institutionalized physical and sporting activity is an essential element of the academic
didactic discussion and moreover of this study. As already indicated in this paper, the
legitimation of school sport follows from the fact that this subject is not included in the
curricula for a self-purpose, but for special purposes.
16
This multi-perspective view of
physical education is derived from the dual function of school sport. On the one hand,
students are to be educated to become sympathetic with sporting activity, on the other
hand they are to be educated by means of physical activity (cf. Balz & Neumann,
1999).
17
Physical activity is a broad field and its participants can gain important
experiences from engaging in this activity. Thus, "the principle of multi-perspectivity
results from the fact that sporting activity is a multifaceted field of activity which
addresses all the senses" (Bräutigam, 2011a, p. 86).
18
In other words and related to the physical education class, this means that students
should obtain the possibility to experience the whole field of sporting activity in various
ways. Kurz (2004, pp. 66f) formulates six perspectives that should be addressed during
physical education classes:
experience and reflect performance and achievement
to physically express oneself and to shape movement
to dare something and to take responsibility for action
16
As described above, the review of literature referring to the questions at hand is limited to German
literature. Depending on the country, other authors stress different purposes of physical education classes.
Simons-Morton (1994), for example, highlights the participation of students in physical activity and the
acquisition of skills to live an active lifestyle as the major aims of school sport.
17
This dual function is in German referred to as "Erziehung zum Sport und Erziehung durch Sport" (cf.
Balz & Neumann, 1999).
18
Translated from German; the original passage quotes as follows: "Das Prinzip der Mehrperspektivität
ergibt sich aus dem Umstand, dass Sport ein vielseitiges und vielsinniges Tätigkeitsfeld ist." (Bräutigam,
2011a, p. 86).
27
to improve the ability of perception and to extend the experience of movement
to enhance the personal level of fitness and to develop a sense for the effects on
health
to experience cooperation, communication and competition
Since the pedagogic perspectives are not organized hierarchically, but rather display an
equal system, no perspective is to be privileged. Some contents of the physical
education class do, of course, permit a more natural relation to certain perspectives,
such as track and field with its cgs-system
19
of units and the perspective of experiencing
and reflecting performance. However, students have to be able to experience that
various sports can be exerted with an emphasis on diverse perspectives, even those that
seem to be bizarre at first sight (cf. Bräutigam, 2011a, p. 86). These experiences
students gain from the multi-perspective view of physical education are crucial since
they partly account for the legitimation of school sport. Moreover, those experiences
are subject to students' attitudes, as well as to their perception.
20
Therefore, it seems to
be worthwhile to investigate students' attitudes toward the latter to get an insight into
how students evaluate and perceive the crucial experiences they should gain from
physical education classes.
As shown in this section, the elements of the physical education class as well as the
conception of the latter are the main constituents of what we understand as a physical
education class. Moreover, they are direct subject to students' evaluation and perception
19
cgs = centimeters, grams, seconds.
20
In chapter 3.2, the implementation of these experiences in the present study is discussed in more
depth.
28
and thus crucial for this study. In section 3, the choice of constituents will be further
constrained and explained.
21
2.1.4
Physical Activity and Exercise
Beside the key terms that are directly intertwined with the present investigation, another
term is important to define. The questionnaire used in this study contains a passage
concerned with the students', the parents' and the students' best friends' amount of
exercise and physical activity. This is important since one of the underlying hypothesis
is that the amount of exercise and physical activity influences the perceptions and
attitudes toward physical education classes. A distinction between physical activity and
exercise is therefore important to sort out this section of the questionnaire and the
objects that are connected to it.
Physical activity has been defined as "any bodily movement produced by skeletal
muscles that requires energy expenditure" (World Health Organisation, 2010, p. 53).
Jackson, Morrow, Hill and Dishman (2004, p. 4) share this definition, determining that
"in simplest terms, physical activity means moving about". These vague statements
indicate that almost every movement of the body is considered to be physical activity.
These definitions are further specified as physical activity constituting "any bodily
movement produced by skeletal muscles that result in energy expenditure beyond
resting expenditure" (Thompson, Buchner, Pina, Balady, Williams, Marcus, Berra,
Blair, Costa, Franklin, Fletcher, Gordon, Pate, Rodriguez, Yancey, & Wenger, 2003, p.
1). Consequently, physical activity is not a state of complete rest, but rather an active
motion. Moreover, physical activity positively correlates with physical fitness (cf.
Caspersen, Powell, & Christenson, 1985, p. 127). This further restricts the range of the
21
The purpose of this study is not, however, to profoundly investigate the subject of school sport.
Therefore, a detailed discussion of the interrelations of all the fields of didactic and pedagogy is omitted
here, since this would go beyond the scope of the discussion.
29
discussed term. Physical activity is, however, not to be equated with exercise. In fact,
exercise is rather a "subset of physical activity that is planned, structured, repetitive, and
purposeful [...]" (Thompson et al., 2003, p. 1).
The difference between the two terms at hand therefore is the exercise's planned and
structured nature. As Thompson et al. (2003) and Caspersen et al. (1985, p. 127) also
incorporate this structured and planned element in their definition. Furthermore, they
also stress the objective to improve one's physical fitness and assign exercise a very
positive correlation with physical fitness whereas physical activity is only assigned a
positive correlation with physical fitness.
22
It is therefore important to distinguish between physical activity and exercise
considering the latter to be a subcategory of the prior and to be aware that even simple
activities such as doing dishes or brushing ones teeth can be seen as physical activities.
Figure 4 depicts an attempt of differentiation of the two concepts.
By the same token, this study follows Jackson et al.'s (2004, p. 4) approach that "there
are, of course, degrees of physical activity". This makes it possible to restrict the term
of physical activity to actions that involve more than just one skeletal muscle and in
terms of duration. On top of this, following Caspersen et al. (1985), the positive
correlation with physical fitness and the increased energy expenditure allows the study
to limit physical activity to active bodily work, such as gardening, walking to school or
riding one's bike. The implementation of the just discussed terms into the questionnaire
will be further explained in chapter 3.
22
Interestingly enough, however, as Vanhees, Lefevre, Philippaerts, Martens, Huygens, Troosters, and
Beunen (2005) indicate, physical fitness is not only dependent on physical activity or exercise, but also on
other attributes. See Vanhees et al. (2005) for further information.
30
Figure 4: Differentiation between Physical Activity and Exercise (Source:
Caspersen et al., 1985, p. 127).
2.2
Importance of Physical Activity and Physical Education
In the preceding chapter, key terms that are crucial for the understanding of the present
study have been defined. This review of literature concerning those key terms, however,
still does not include the qualitative and quantitative research that has been conducted in
the fields of physical activity and physical education.
Many studies in the mentioned domain have been realized, distinguishing themselves in
the focus on different topics. Primarily, physical education students' self-perceptions
have been investigated (cf. e.g., Kirkcaldy, Shephard, & Siefen, 2002). Besides, the
31
health behaviors of physical education students have been a field of interest (cf. e.g.,
Pate, Heath, Dowda, & Trost, 1996).
The following sections will therefore provide a review of current studies, lining out the
importance of physical activity, exercise and physical education as already mentioned.
Correspondingly, the most important findings of research related to physical activity
and physical education classes will be presented. The purpose is not, however, to
present a complete demonstration of the state of research in detail, but rather to present
selected findings that are related to the topic of this study.
2.2.1
Health Behavior and Physical Education
The dual function of physical education classes comprises an education by the means of
sport on the one hand, and an education toward sport on the other hand. The question of
why children are to be educated to engage in sport on a regular and in the best case
lifelong basis, is often answered in terms of health.
Moreover, Hardman (1998) stresses the role of physical education in promoting healthy
well-being to enrich the quality of life. Since this promotion of health constitutes a
central factor of physical education classes' content, and the content and the outcomes
of physical education classes are subject to attitude formation and closely related to the
present study, it is important to line out current investigation examining the relation
between exercise and physical education on the one hand and health on the other hand.
The effects of exercise and physical activity on health are well known. Harris and Cale
(1997) point out exercise recommendations for adolescents, including enjoyable sports
and games comprising a large group of skeletal muscles as well as an active lifestyle,
such as cycling to school.
In the context of the 2. Deutscher Kinder- und Jugendsportbericht, Schmidt, Zimmer,
and Völker (2009) report that two thirds of 10 to 13 years old children's afternoon
32
activities fall upon sports. However, these physical activity levels decline when children
trespass to the crucial period of adolescence. These observations are further supported
by the findings of the US Department of Health and Human Services (2000) that reports
that most US people including adolescents and children do not meet the
recommendations for physical activity.
Various authors have set these recommendations for adolescents and children to at least
an hour of physical activity almost every day (cf. Cavill, Biddle, & Sallis, 2001;
Prochaska, Sallis, & Long 2001). Despite these facts, health has been reported to be a
major reason for both adults and adolescents to engage in physical activity (cf. Pano &
Markola, 2011, p. 60),
Long-since, the health related benefits of physical activity and exercise have been
included in the goals of physical education classes through health-related exercise (cf.
Green & Lamb, 2000, p. 88). Furthermore, as already indicated in chapter 2.1, health
and the development of a health consciousness constitute one of the six sense
perspectives of multi-perspectival physical education classes.
Interviewing teachers in North-West England, Mason (1995, p. 6) found out that most
teachers "stressed the health-related benefits of sport and exercise for children".
Students are to be encouraged by the means of physical education to engage in an active
lifestyle throughout life (cf. Green & Lamb, 2000, p. 89). Thus, sedentary behavior can
be reduced and adolescents in the present and in the future are able to benefit from
the health related advantages of physical activity and exercise (cf. Reilly, Penpraze,
Hislop, Davies, Grant, & Paton, 2008, p. 614).
Biddle Sallis, and Cavill (1998) further highlight the significance and potential of
physical education classes to help children reach their recommended amount of physical
activity. The view of educating students toward physical activity and sport of course
concurs with the dual function of physical education classes established in German
scholarly literature as described above. Simons-Morton (1994) emphasizes this point, as
33
well, assigning school sport the task of giving students the possibility to engage in
sufficient amounts of physical activity on the one hand, and equip them with knowledge
and skills to be physically active outside school on the other hand.
It is important to mention, however, that this enhanced emphasis on health in physical
education classes has not led to a rejection of traditional sports and other physical
education class contents (cf. Roberts, 1995, p. 339).
23
Moreover, a longitudinal study on
adolescents and the development of their physical activity levels revealed that
adolescents reduce their levels of physical activity and exercise in the crucial phase
from 12 to 15 (cf. Aaron, Storti, Robertson, Kriska, & LaPorte, 2002, p. 1075). This
agrees with the findings of the 2. Deutscher Kinder- und Jugendsportbericht, as
mentioned above.
The interesting but yet unsolved question is, if this decline concurs with negative
attitudes toward physical activity and exercise and maybe toward physical education.
Other investigation in the field of health, school sport, and physical education have
shown that participation and activity in physical education classes are dependent on
several individual factors. Students with higher body fat tend to be less active, highly
skilled students are more active than their (lowly skilled) peers and boys tend to be
more active than girls (cf. Fairclough & Stratton, 2005, p. 15).
Since one of the functions of physical education classes is to educate students toward
physical activity and exercise, the above findings are crucial to the conceptualization of
school sports. School sport has to find a way to delight adolescents and to enthuse them
23
These findings suggest that many teachers use the health benefits of physical activity and exercise as
legitimation for physical education classes. The consequential question therefore is, whether the subject
of health is stressed implicitly or explicitly, that is, whether this subject is reflected and discussed with
students to make them aware of health benefits. The maintenance of the classic physical education class
contents is not necessarily indicative of implicit incorporation of the subject of health. The sense
perspectives are rather to be experienced by the means of various contents. Yet, a closer examination of
this subject is not the aim of the present study.
34
with physical activity and sport. One way to influence students in the intended way may
be in understanding their attitudes toward the subject and thus the physical education
teachers' influence on those attitudes.
2.2.2
Students' Self-Perception in Physical Education
Besides the benefits related to physical health, physical activity and exercise have also
been reported to contribute to psychological well-being, including stress-management
skills, positive mood and an enhanced self-concept (cf. Kirkcaldy & Shephard, 1990).
The self-concept has been a broadly investigated field in psychology, and its value for
schools and educational contexts has frequently been emphasized (Marsh & Craven,
2006). It is defined as a "cognitive and structured unit, a perception of who we are
24
e.g., the conviction of being a good basketball player" (Woolfolk & Schönpflug, 2008,
p. 108).
25
This definition suggests the assumption that self-concept and self-perception
are closely related to participation in, and motivation and attitude toward physical
activity, exercise and physical education (cf. Page, Ashford, Fox, & Biddle, 1993, p.
585). This idea coincides with Fairclough and Stratton's (2005, p. 15) view of skilled
students being more active, as already pointed out in chapter 2.2.1. Fox (1998)
emphasizes the impact of the physical self-perception on the global self-concept, which
stresses its role in physical education classes and vice versa. Figure 6 displays a further
segmentation of the physical self-perception into the four subdomains Sport
Competence, Body Attractiveness, Physical Strength, and Physical Condition.
24
Cf. Weiten, Dunn, and Hammer (2012).
25
Translated from German, the original passage quotes as follows: "Selbstkonzept ist eine kognitive,
strukturierte Einheit, eine Vorstellung davon, wer man ist z.B. Die Überzeugung, dass man ein guter
Basketballspieler ist." Moreover, Woolfolk, and Schönpflug (2008) further divide the global self-concept
in subcategories, such as the ability self-concept or the social self-concept. However, for the purpose of
this study, the above noted definition is sufficient. For further information see Woolfolk and Schönpflug
(2008).
35
Figure 5: The Physical Self-Perception and its subdomains (Source: Fox & Corbin,
1989, as printed in Raustorp et al., 2005, p. 127).
Furthermore, Woolfolk and Schönpflug (2008, p. 108) state that from childhood to
adolescence, the self-concept is closely related to physical appearance, performance and
social acceptance, and that it is subject to social comparison. This again supports the
idea of self-concept and self-perception influencing the field, which is of interest of this
study.
Many studies examining the physical self-perception have been conducted. As a main
instrument, the PSPP physical self-perception profile has been used to investigate
this field in the context of physical activity and physical education. Marsh (1998) notes
that physical self-perception significantly declines in the adolescent years from 12 to 16.
Besides, males are reported to have better scores in physical self-perception than
females (cf. Maiano, Ninot, & Bilard, 2004, p. 64).
These two findings concerning age and gender may be due to the contents of physical
education classes or due to Western culture's view and perception of the body.
However, there has also been evidence for a positive correlation between participation
in sport and self-perception (cf. Kirkcaldy et al., 2002, p. 548). This study suggests that
those adolescents who regularly participate in physical activity and exercise have a
better image of themselves. In addition to that, Kirkcaldy et al. (2002, p. 548) also point
out the associations between regular physical activity and exercise and attitudes. Other
studies have focused on the correlation between physical self-worth and sport
Details
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- Keywords
- Physical education socioeconomic learning teaching school students attitude student attitudes attitude measures
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