Socio-environmental Impacts of Sprawl on the Coastline Of Douala: Options for Integrated Coastal Management
©2014
Textbook
169 Pages
Summary
This book addresses the socioeconomic and environmental implications of urban sprawl on the coastline of Douala-Cameroon by making use of qualitative and quantitative research methodology. The findings of the work portray that sprawl in Cameroon is orchestrated by inadequate policy implementation, archaic master plan, inadequate information dissemination to the public, inequality in the distribution of resources among the different regions of the State and above all, the gaps elucidated by the traditional form of management. The work upholds that livelihood strategies and environmental protection are intricately linked, and therefore, there is a need for ICM as the management approach blends the two adequately. Based on the experience drawn from Xiamen ICM, the study concludes that Douala needs an autonomous coastal interagency to address the gaps punctuated by sectoral management, and thus, enhance the sustainable management of ist coastal milieu.
Excerpt
Table Of Contents
3.4.1.2 Education ... 67
3.4.2 Environmental Implications ... 68
3.4.2.1 Effect on Fresh Water ... 68
3.4.2.2 Effect on Sea Water Resources ... 73
3.4.2.2.1 Effect on Mangrove ... 73
4 A Recapitulation of Urban Planning Policy and the Analysis of Gaps in
Cameroon ... 78
4.1 Stakeholders Involved in Urban Planning in Cameroon ... 78
4.1.1 At the Institutional Level ... 78
4.1.1.1 Ministerial Level ... 78
4.1.1.2 MAETUR ... 80
4.1.1.3 S.I.C. ... 81
4.1.2 At the Municipal Level ... 81
4.1.2.1 Douala Urban Council (CUD) ... 81
4.1.2.2 HYSACAM (Hygienne et Salubrité du Cameroun) ... 82
4.2 Gaps in Cameroon's Urban Planning Policy ... 85
4.2.1 Obsolete Master Plan ... 85
4.2.2 Inadequate Implementation of Land Use Plan ... 85
4.2.3 Misappropriation of Urban Planning Tools ... 86
4.2.4 Inadequate Qualified Staff ... 87
4.2.5 Insufficient Exertion of Functions ... 87
4.2.6 Conflicting Functions ... 88
4.2.7 Land Ownership Problems ... 89
5 Xiamen Integrated Coastal Management: A Hope for Cameroon's Coastal
Management ... 91
5.1 Xiamen Before the ICM Implementation ... 91
5.2 Xiamen After ICM Implementation ... 94
5.3 Recommendations ... 100
6 Results and Discussion ... 103
7 Conclusions and General Recommendations ... 116
7.1 Conclusions ... 116
7.2 General Recommendations ... 117
7.3 Outlook for Further Study ... 118
References ... 119
Annex - 1: Acknowledgement ... 130
Annex - 2: Questionnaires ... 132
I
Abstract
The geodynamics of the coastal stretch naturally serve as a convergence point for
anthropogenic settlements world-wide. On a global scale, coastal areas occupy 20
percent of the Earth's surface, yet they harbour approximately 50 percent of human
population living within 200 km of the coast (UN, 2002). The continuous occupancy of
the coastal milieu with limited resources and increasing economic hardship has resulted
to uncoordinated spatial layout of urban settlement, termed urban sprawl. Urban sprawl,
though not a new phenomenon, remains a challenge for most decision makers of the
world, of which, Cameroon is not an exception. The challenge is further compounded
by the fact that sprawl is not well circumscribed as there is no universally accepted
definition for it.
This paper, therefore, addresses the socioeconomic and environmental implications
of urban sprawl on the coastline of Douala-Cameroon by making use of qualitative and
quantitative research methodology. Emphatic analyses of some of the hypothesis are
made with the use of land value models of William Alonso, Earnest Burgess, Chauncy
Harris, and Edward Ullman. Douala, the economic capital and main seaport of
Cameroon, is the industrial nerve of the country. Douala harbours almost 80% of the
Cameroon's industries (Angwe and Gabche, 1997) and because of the nature and varied
economic activity; it is the fastest growing area of Cameroon. The fast growing nature
of the town coupled with poor management strategies have meant that there is a lot of
pressure exerted on its coastal resources. There is, therefore, a need for proposed
long-lasting solutions to reverse or attenuate the prevailing situation. This study
elucidates a brief background of Cameroon and paints a vivid picture on the
morphological aspect of sprawl as well as its socioeconomic connotations. The work
also examines the key players involved in shaping the urban planning process in Douala
and further x-ray gaps inhibiting sustainable urban planning in Cameroon.
Moreover, the paper examines Xiamen's socioeconomic and environmental
atmosphere before and after the implementation of Integrated Coastal Management
(ICM) and, it is, however, deduced that, the entrusting of more powers to local
governments to implement new environmental laws and welcoming of multilateral and
bilateral assistance by the Chinese Central Government acted as a crunch since the
introduction of ICM (Chen and Juha, 2003). Moreso, the political will bestowed by the
II
Xiamen municipal authorities, the involvement and inculcation of relevant
stakeholders, the creation of a multi-agency council and the acquisition of sea-use
zoning scheme are all ground breaking points that emblems Xiamen's ICM success
stories. Today, with the successful implementation of ICM, Xiamen has built herself a
dual reputation of a vibrant economy and a comprehensive ecological atmosphere.
The findings of the work portray that sprawl in Cameroon is orchestrated by
inadequate policy implementation, archaic master plan, inadequate information
dissemination to the public, inequality in the distribution of resources among the
different regions of the State and above all, the gaps elucidated by the traditional form
of management. The work upholds that livelihood strategies and environmental
protection are intricately linked, and therefore, there is a need for ICM as the
management approach blends the two adequately. Based on the experience drawn from
Xiamen ICM, the study concludes that Douala needs an autonomous coastal
interagency to address the gaps punctuated by sectoral management, and thus, enhance
the sustainable management of its coastal milieu.
Key Words: Urban Sprawl, Integrated Coastal Management, Coastal Area, Land
Value, Douala-Cameroon.
III
20
200
50
2002
William Alonso, Earnest Burgess, Chauncy Harris
Edward Ullman
80
Angwe
1997 Gabche
ICM
Juha
2003
ICM
ICM
IV
ICM
ICM
----
V
List of Acronyms
AEFALSH
l'Association des Etudiants de la Faculté des Arts, Lettres et Sciences
Humaines
AfDB African
Development
Bank
BOD
Biological Oxygen Demand
BUCREP
Bureau Central de Recensements et d'Etude de Population
CBD Central
Business
District
CDE
Camerounaise des Eaux
CEC
Commission for Environmental Cooperation
CUD Douala
Urban
Council
CZMA
Coastal Zone Management Act
DHH
Department of Water Resources and Hydrology
DPSIR
Driver-Pressure-State-Impacts-Responses
EEA
European Environment Agency
FAO
Food and Agricultural Organisation
FCFA
Franc Communauté Financière Africaine
GDP Gross
Domestic
Product
GOC Government
of
Cameroon
GPHC
General Population and Housing Census
HYSACAM
Hygiène et Salubrité du Cameroun
ICAM
Integrated Coastal Area Management
ICM Integrated
Coastal
Management
ICZM
Integrated Coastal Zone Management
IEA
International
Energy
Agency
INRA
National Institute for Agronomic Research
IRAD
Institute de Recherché Agronomique et de Développement
MAETUR
Mission d'Aménagement des Terrains Urbains et Ruraux
MINATD
Ministère de l'Administration Territoriale et de la Décentralisation
MINDAF
Ministère des Domaines et des Affaires Foncières
MINEE
Ministry of Energy and Water Resources
MINUH
Ministry of Urban Affairs and Housing
MINVILLE
Ministère de la Ville
NGO Non-Governmental
Organization
VI
NIC
National
Institute
of
Cartography
OECD
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
ONCPB
National Board for marketing of Basic Commodities
PCR Pressure-Condition-Response
POPS Persistent
Organic
Pollutants
PSR Pressure-State-Response
SAP
Structural Adjustment Program
SIC
Société
Immobilière
du
Cameroun
TVA
Tennessee Valley Authority
UCO
Unions of Agricultural Cooperatives
UNCED
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme
UNWTO
World Tourism Organization
VII
List of Figures
Figure 1: Flow Chart Summarizing the Research Methodology ... 6
Figure 2: Location of Study Area ... 11
Figure 3: Annual Precipitation in Douala ... 13
Figure 4: Hydrography of Douala ... 16
Figure 5: Physical Patterns Defining Sprawl (Galster et al., 2001) ... 27
Figure 6: Impact of Sprawl on Social Cost. ... 37
Figure 7: Schematic Summary of the Causes and Consequences of
Urban Sprawl ... 39
Figure 8: Summary Importance of Coastal Areas ... 44
Figure 9: Bid Rent Curve ... 47
Figure 10: Concentric Zone Theory ... 49
Figure 11: Sector Model ... 50
Figure 12: Multiple Nuclei of Urban Spatial Structure ... 51
Figure 13: The Driving Forces-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses Framework ... 52
Figure 14: Low Density Sprawl in Makepe-Douala ... 55
Figure 15: Leapfrogging Sprawl, Latitude 4
o
02'10E & 4
o
1'52N and Longitude 9
o
49'13E
and 9
o
49'21, Douala ... 56
Figure 16: Ribbon Sprawl, P 14-Douala ... 57
Figure 17: Coffee Production and Exports (000 Bags) 1970-2009 ... 59
Figure 18: SAP as a Contributing Factor to Urban Sprawl ... 60
Figure 19: Exposure to Disease Vectors, such as Mosquitoes ... 66
Figure 20: Problem Tree of Disease Prevalence ... 67
Figure 21: Problem Analyses on Water Quality ... 71
Figure 22: DPSIR Illustration of Sprawl Impact ... 72
Figure 23: Functional Relation of ICM Within the Coastal Esplanade ... 100
Figure 24: Toward the Reduction in Sectoral Conflict by the Establishment
of an Autonomous Coastal Agency. ... 101
Figure 25: Pie Chart Showing the Source of Mangrove as Fuel Wood ... 110
Figure 26: Variation in Land Use from the Planned Section of Bonamoussadi ... 111
Figure 27: Variation in Land Use form Different Areas of Douala ... 112
VIII
List of Plates
Plate 1: Temporary Structure Erected with Wood (Carabotte) ... 53
Plate 2: Standard Structure Erected with Blocks ... 54
Plate 3: Buildings Categorized as Luxury in Douala ... 54
Plate 4: Buildings Categorized as Luxury in Douala ... 55
Plate 5: Poor Allocation an Unhygienic Toiletry Stations: A) Less than 1cm Toilet in
Mabanda, B) Sewage Oozing from a Toilet in Bonaberi, C) and D) are
Constructed Directly on a Swamp at Venice-Bonaberi ... 65
Plate 6: Difficult Accessibility Due to Poor Planning ... 68
Plate 7: Poorly Disposed Household Wastes Lingering on the Road ... 69
Plate 8: Wonton Cutting of Mangrove for Fuel Wood: A) Bonassama and B)
Pont Noir ... 73
Plate 9: Wonton Cutting of Mangrove for Local Construction ... 74
Plate 10: Sand Mining Boanassama Beach-Douala ... 74
Plate 11: The Impact of Sedimentation on the Mangrove Ecosystem,
Mabanda-Douala ... 75
Plate 12: Waste Dumping by ALPICAM in Mabanda Leading to Sedimentation ... 76
Plate 13: Illegal Occupation of the Coastline and those Exposed to Flooding ... 86
Plate 14: Rampant Construction of Houses on Prohibited Areas. A) Bonaberi;
B) Village; C) Venice; and D) Bonasama. ... 88
Plate 15: Yundang Lake before 1994 ... 93
Plate 16: Douala Coast 2012 ... 93
Plate 17: Yundang Lake before 1994 ... 93
Plate 18: Faecal Sludge-Douala Coast 2012... 93
Plate 19: Eastern Sea Area before ICM Implementation ... 94
Plate 20: Beautiful Array of Yuandan Lake ... 99
Plate 21: Poor Road and Drainage Maintenance ... 105
Plate 22: Traditional Pit Toilet ... 108
Plate 23: Degradation of the Douala Coastline ... 113
IX
List of Tables
Table 1: Time Schedule of Study ... 7
Table 2: Annual Temperature and Precipitation-Douala ... 13
Table 3: Summary Definitions of Urban Sprawl ... 27
Table 4: Repartition of Population by Sub-Divisions-Douala ... 62
Table 5: Land Use and Cover Changes from 1974, 2003 and 2009 of Douala
(Cameroon) Peri-urban Setting ... 77
Table 6: Summary of Role of Stakeholders Involved in the Planning of Douala. ... 84
Table 7: Resource Use Conflict in Xiamen, China ... 92
Table 8: Measures Taken to Address Environmental Problems in Xiamen ... 95
X
List of Graphs
Graph 1: Employment Structure of Cameroon ... 21
Graph 2: Underemployment by Sector (in percent) 2010 ... 22
Graph 3: Repartition of Population by Sub-Divisions ... 63
Graph 4: Sanitation Coverage in Seven Low-income Districts (2002) ... 64
Graph 5: Land Use Cover of Douala (Cameroon) Peri-urban Setting 1974,
2003 and 2009 ... 77
Graph 6: Source of Drinking Water ... 104
Graph 7: Disease Prevalence ... 104
Graph 8: Annual Health Expenditure (FCFA) ... 105
Graph 9: Annual Visits to the Hospital ... 105
Graph 10: Household Monthly Income ... 106
Graph 11: Type of Toilets ... 107
Graph 12: Number of People per Household ... 107
Graph 13: Occupation of Respondents ... 108
Graph 14: Location of Solid Wastes Discharge ... 109
Graph 15: Energy Source for Cooking (In Percentage) ... 109
Graph 16: Land Ownership Situation ... 115
1
Chapter - 1
1 General Introduction and Background Information
1.1 General Introduction
Coastal areas are rich in economic, social, natural and political resources
1
, and
thus serve as a pull factor to population concentration. The high concentration of
people in coastal areas has produced numerous economic benefits, including improved
transportation links, industrial and urban development, revenue from tourism, and
food production. However, continuous influx of people to these areas have meant that
there is a lot of pressure exerted on the limited coastal resources, and therefore, there
is need for rational management. Some of the challenges plaguing these coastal areas
are: pollution from industrial and domestic wastes, pollution from shipping and oil
terminals, sea level rise as a result of climate change, overfishing, deforestation, and
more specially unplanned urbanization which has propagated sprawling habitats as
standard of living continues to dwindle (FAO, 2012).
Nicholls et al. (2007) points out that rapid population growth, urban sprawl, and
growing demand for coastal resorts development have additional deleterious effects on
protective coastal ecosystems. The continuous degradation of the coastal areas is more
visible in developing countries having limited technology, as compared to the
developed world. Not only is there a great disparity in population concentration
between the hinterlands and the coastal areas but a greater disparity in an ever
increasing urban coastal communities and a continuous decreasing rural population on
the same coastal stretch. This changing disparity necessitates enormous potentials
both human and physical but it is rather unfortunate that gaps in management coupled
with limited resource cannot keep the pace with unprecedented anthropogenic
fashioning of the coast. If timely measures are not taken, population pressures and the
associated levels of economic activity will further degrade many coastal habitats
(Creel, 2004). The challenge for policymakers and coastal resource managers is there
to figure out how to balance the economic benefits of coastal resources while ensuring
1
Political resources are resources used in political decision-making, or for all areas of social-life that are
make claims toward a legislative/decision-making body.
http://politicalinequality.org/2008/06/04/defining-and-measuring-political-resources/
Accessed:
23/01/2013
2
environmental sustainability. Pinpointing anthropogenic hurdles is fundamental to
achieving such a balance.
This paper, therefore, seeks to address coastal degradation in Douala-Cameroon
as orchestrated by urban sprawl which is fueled by inappropriateness in policies
coupled with the laxity in Cameroon's bureaucratic proceedings. The study maintains
that, integrated coastal management (ICM) which has made significant progress in
Southeast Asia and particularly in Xiamen, China, is a glaring opportunity for decision
makers in Cameroon, and if exploited carefully, could reverse the prevailing situation.
1.1.1 Problem Statement
The progressive degradation of the coastal area of Cameroon constitutes one of the
major environmental problems for that country today. Despite the growing public
concern and increasing political rhetoric, most actions have been relatively ineffective
in dealing with this problem. The face of Douala is changing at a rapid rate and as the
population increases so does the imminent threat to its coastal ecosystems. Urban
sprawl has become a problem at the forefront of the Cameroon government's concerns,
and for a good reason. Development has inhibited the proper sustainability and balance
within the ecosystem, and without necessary implementation of current land-use
policies, this devastation will continue to deplete the natural resources. Douala, the
economic capital and main seaport of Cameroon, is the industrial nerve of the country.
Douala harbors almost 80% of the Cameroon's industries (Angwe and Gabche, 1997),
and because of the nature and varied economic activity; it is the fastest growing area of
Cameroon. It is the most urbanized with a huge resident population (about 2,000,000
inhabitants)
2
. The fast growing nature of the town, coupled with poor management
strategies, have meant that there is a lot of pressure exerted on it coastal resources.
There is, therefore, a need for proposed long lasting solutions to reverse or attenuate the
prevailing situation.
2
Institut National de la Statistique Cameroun 2010 population
3
1.1.2 Research Questions
A number of questions are designed to lead towards a better understanding of urban
sprawl in Doula-Cameroon and eventually formulate adequate measures to address it.
The following are the research questions that guide this work:
1.
What are the major driving forces of urban sprawl in Douala?
2.
What is the relationship between urban sprawl and environmental protection?
3.
How do inappropriate policies impact the livelihood of Douala coastal
dwellers?
4.
How can nefarious socioeconomic and environmental implication on the coast
of Douala be attenuated?
1.1.3 Hypotheses
This research is based on the following assumptions:
1.
Poor urban planning leads to the emergence of urban sprawl.
2.
The inability of the city council to provide social services to the growing urban
population exacerbates urban sprawl.
3.
Poverty is a cause of coastal degradation.
4.
Weak urban policy enforcement is behind the coastal degradation in Douala.
5.
Sectoral management in Cameroon is a contributor to urban sprawl and its
resultant socioeconomic and environmental implications
6.
Integrated coastal management is absolutely necessary to reverse ongoing
deterioration of the littoral zone of Cameroon
7.
Poor or insufficient information dissemination to the general public is a
contributing factor to urban sprawl in Cameroon.
1.1.4 Research Objectives
1.1.4.1 Specific Objectives
One of the major impacts of urban land cover dynamics is a shrinking amount of
cultivated land through the development of infrastructures and various development
projects. Therefore, urban land use change studies are important tools for urban or
regional planners and decision makers to consider the impact of urban sprawl. The
results of this study would provide relevant information for contribution to the
4
environmental management plans and improve urban planning issues. This information
is also expected to:
1.
Examine the causes of sprawl in Douala.
2.
Portray the implications of urban sprawl on the coast of Douala-Cameroon.
3.
Examine the gaps in Cameroon's urban planning policy and environmental
policy.
1.1.4.2 General Objectives
4.
Identify and document the prevailing state of urban sprawl on the coast of
Douala-Cameroon.
5.
Conduct a thorough appraisal of the urban planning policy in Cameroon.
6.
Critically examine the measures used by the Douala city council to improve
the city council area, physically, socially, and economically.
7.
Determine the planning regulations and policies that govern urban
development and land use in Douala, and the degree of implementation and
application of such policies by the different stakeholders.
8.
Use integrated coastal management to proffer recommendations that will serve
a comprehension for efficient and effective management of urban sprawl and
its nefarious effects on the coast of Cameroon.
1.1.5 Scope of the Study
The present thesis aims to address the problem of urban sprawl in the perspective
of a developing country with Douala, a coastal city as the case under investigation. In
recent years, Douala-Cameroon has seen unprecedented growth spatially and
economically leading to sprawl. It is in this setting that the present study aims to
address the problem of sprawl in Douala-Cameroon.
1.1.6 Research Methodology
The issue of urban sprawl is of crucial importance in urban growth management all
over the world. The patterns of urban spatial development are highly complex and
require theoretical and methodological framework. The term methodology, in a broad
perspective, refers to the processes, principles, and procedures by which a problem is
approached to seek answers (Bogdan and Taylor, 1975). Methodology comprises data
5
collection, organization, and interpretation (Riley, 1963). It applies as to how the
research is being conducted.
In order to realize this thesis, the study made use of primary and secondary data
sources. Secondary data included relevant information in the international scientific
fields, diverse literature from international scientific journals, environmental progress
reports, information from internet websites, reports by governmental agencies, and
NGOs; and thus substantial knowledge was gathered and a review of what other
scientists have written on relevant issues with the research topic was composed.
In an attempt to better understand the topic and produce a good plan of the present
work, recourse to articles, reports, thesis, and books from the central library of the
University of Yaounde I, the library at the Geography Department of the University of
Yaounde I, l'Association des Etudiants de la Faculté des Arts, Lettres et Sciences
Humaines (AEFALSH) library, Centre Cuturelle François Villon, The technical
department of the Douala City Council, (IRAD) Institute de Recherché Agronomique et
de Développement was made. Additionally, the National Institute of Cartography (NIC)
was important in the elaboration of maps. The regional and divisional delegation of
agriculture, the delegation of fisheries and livestock industry were of great importance
in documentary research. The Bureau Central de Recensements et d'Etude de
Population (BUCREP) was consulted for relevant demographic statistics. Also, the
following government ministries of Cameroon were consulted for r issues relevant to
institutional matters concerning coastal space management.
Ministry of Environment and Nature Protection:
Ministry of Industries, Mines, and Technological development; Ministry of
Water and Energy; Ministry of Scientific Research and Innovation; and
Ministry of Public works
Ministry of Urban Planning
Ministry of Higher Education
The Douala Urban Councils
NGOs, such as World Wildlife Fund for nature protection, etc.
On the basis of primary data, questionnaires, historical linings, interviews, and
visual appreciation through pictures were used to collect raw data from the field. This
6
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7
1.1.7 Time Schedule of Study
This study was designed to last for10 months. That is, from September, 2012 to
June, 2013. The schedule encompassed activities such as development of research tools,
field research, analysis and research writing (Table 1).
Table 1: Time Schedule of Study
Activities
Period (Month)
S
e
ptember
October
No
vember
De
ce
mber
January
February
M
a
rch
Apri
l
Ma
y
June
Develop research tools
Field inventory
Talk with relevant resource
persons (Public authorities,
Community representative and
research institutions
Field Survey
Data collection
Data Entry and analysis
Thesis Writing
Thesis Defence
Source: Author's work
1.1.8 Structure of the Thesis
This thesis addresses the problem of urban sprawl with an interdisciplinary
perspective. In the first chapter, a general introduction and the background of the
study areas is presented. The second chapter tackles the literature review and
theoretical framework. In the third chapter, causes and implications of urban sprawl
are discussed by presenting them in three different periods. The fourth chapter
portrays a recapitulation of the urban planning policy in Cameroon; this chapter also
evaluates certain policy options and analyses to arrive at appropriate policy
recommendations for managing urban sprawl. The fifth chapter presents a brief insight
8
of Xiamen Integrated Coastal. The sixth chapter presents the results and discussions
while the final chapter presents conclusions, along with summary of the research and
recommendations for future work, and outlines the remaining challenges in managing
urban sprawl.
1.1.9 Problems Associated with Data Collection
The study was subjected to such constraints as the non-availability of important
related literature works and text. More so, the high cost (for a student having rather
limited financial resources) of gathering of data in different environs, libraries, etc.,
especially in terms of distance from Xiamen, China, to Cameroon and above all some
other research source locations..
Lengthy and complicated bureaucratic procedures were among the most
challenging problems faced while collecting the data. In case of most government
offices, appointment(s), in advance, had to be made to see the authority in charge. This
requirement became even more difficult at some regional delegations where provision
of an authorization duly signed by the Minister was required; the latter happened at the
Regional Delegation of Town Planning and Housing leading to rather painful delay in
data collection.
Lack of important information on environmental issues, fisheries, agriculture, etc.,
from ministerial departments in Douala was another major setback to this study. For
example, information on mangroves was completely lacking in the Regional and
Divisional Delegations of the Environment and Forestry, including the complete
absence of data and information on land reclamation, pollution, and deforestation
within the estuary from the department of environment. The department of agriculture
was completely lacking the information on farming impacts on the estuary, including
the type of fertilizers and pesticides used and the quantities, soil erosion, the number of
farmers and the size of their farming units, and socioeconomic impacts of farming
within the estuary. The problem of outdated information and maps cannot be
overemphasized. The city of Douala is still being managed with the Master plan drawn
more than 50 years ago in 1959, when Cameroon was still under colonial rule, despite
the numerous demographic, socioeconomic, and environmental changes that have taken
place in the subsequent more than five decades.
9
Other major problems included the almost complete lack of documentation and
data in English, as well as hostility, and suspicion from some public authorities and
slum dwellers, wood and sand dealers, etc. A vast majority (95%) of the documents
obtained in the field were in French, requiring translation before they could be used in
this study. This translation has been very time-consuming, tedious, and not without
some minor errors and irregularities. However, despite these shortcomings, a thorough
and solid scientific work worthy of emulation, though requiring very rigorous efforts,
has been compiled.
1.1.10 Delimitation of Study Area
This study was delimited on a triple plan. That is thematic, temporal, and spatial
delimitation.
1.1.10.1 Thematic Delimitation
This study "The Socioeconomic and Environmental Implications of Urban Sprawl
on the Coast of Douala: Options for Integrated Coastal Management" addresses the
background information (physical and economic factors), the reasons behind sprawl
and its concomitant implication, a diagnostic analysis of the urban planning policy and
the role played by the various stakeholders involved to overhaul or mitigate the ongoing
situation.
1.1.10.2 Temporal Delimitation
The study is aimed at portraying the environmental situation of Douala viz-a-vis
anthropogenic forces as well as biotic factors. The work does so by looking at three
different periods. That is, the pre-colonial (before 1884); during the colonial period
(1884-1960); and the post-colonial period (1960 to present).
1.1.10.3 Spatial Delimitations
Cameroon lies within the geocoordinates: latitudes 1°45 N to 13° N and longitude
8°25 E to 16°28 E. It is situated on the west coast of Africa, running north to south from
the Sahara Desert to the Atlantic Ocean. The country is bounded on the north by Lake
Chad; on the east by the country, Chad, and the Central African Republic; on the south
10
by the Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea; and on the west by the
Bight of Biafra (an arm of the Atlantic Ocean) and Nigeria (Figure 1). The country is
shaped like an elongated triangle, and forms a bridge between West Africa and Central
Africa. Cameroon has a total area of 475,442 km
2
. At 475,442 square kilometers,
Cameroon is the world's 53rd-largest country
3
. Yaoundé is the capital, and Douala
(latitude 03 ° 40'-04 ° 11 'N, longitude 09 ° 16'-09 ° 52' E, altitude 13 m) is the largest
city. The major industries (petroleum refineries, fishing industries, international air
transports, and others) are located in this region.
3
http://www.newcommunities.ie/members/cameroon-association-ireland-dublin/ (Accessed:
24/12/2012)
11
Figure 2: Location of Study Area
Source: Modified from Google Maps
12
1.2 Background Information
1.2.1 Environmental Factors
1.2.1.1 Climate
Douala city, with an average temperature of 26.4°C has a hyper humid equatorial
climate (Cameroonian type) with a single long rainy season (unimodal type),
particularly abundant and presenting local nuances moderated by the breeze of the sea
(Dibong et al., 2010).
The dry season extends from December to February and the rainy season from
March to August. Douala receives approximately 4000 mm of water per annum. July
and August are usually the peak months of the rainy season, with a low total of 207.4
mm in July 2003 and one year (August1966) with over 1240 mm. The rains are usually
from January to December, though December, January and February are occasionally
dry.
The mean maximum relative humidity occurs here due to its proximity to the
Atlantic Ocean (exposed to the warm Guinean Gulf's currents). Here, the type and
intensity of the weather is determined by the meridional variations in the depth of the
monsoon layer (moisture); the southwest (SW) monsoon flow at lower levels is the
source of humidity to a large extent determined by the large scale atmospheric
circulation and sea-air interaction over much of the tropical Atlantic sector (Lamb,
1983). Douala Cameroon (about 4ºN) is well usually marked by a zone with deep active
and convective clouds, thunderstorms, and squall lines (SW winds) and heavy
precipitations. The African Waves are often associated with Squall lines that form,
develop, and dissipate within the waves.
13
Table 2: Annual Temperature and Precipitation-Douala
Months Precipitation
(mm)
Average Maximum
Temperature (°C)
Average Minimum
Temperature (°C)
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Year
50.80
81.30
195.60
226.10
307.30
477.50
622.30
627.40
581.70
419.10
154.90
55.90
3 812,5
24.44
25.00
24.44
24.44
23.89
23.89
23.33
23.33
23.33
23.33
23.89
23.89
23.89
30.00
30.56
30.56
30.00
29.44
27.78
26.67
26.67
27.22
27.78
28.89
30.00
28.89
Source: Weatherbase
Figure 3: Annual Precipitation in Douala
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Precipitations_Douala.svg
14
1.2.1.2 Vegetation and Wildlife
The Douala coastal zone is characterized by an extensive estuary. The estuaries are
a global marine biodiversity hotspots (Ninan, 2009). The mudflats and mangrove
forests are home to many water birds, and are breeding grounds for fish, shrimp, and
other wildlife. They can be classified as wetlands of international importance according
to the criteria under the Ramsar convention. (Napoleon and Chi, 2007). The estuary is
home to the Cameroon ghost shrimp, which periodically develops into dense swarms.
At these times, people catch huge quantities, eating the females or drying them for later
use, and making fish oil from the males.
In Cameroon, there are 188,000 ha in total of mangrove forest in the estuary. A
large block of mangroves 20 km deep on the north shore extends 35 km up-estuary. The
mangrove forest is interrupted by Bodeaka Bay and Moukouchou Bay, which form
wide waterways through the swamp. On the south shore of the estuary, mangroves
extend from Douala to Point Soulelaba, the end of the spit that separates the estuary
from the sea. These mangroves are divided by the Dibamba River and by Monaka Bay
and Island (Hughes, 1992). About 15,000 ha of the mangrove forest are within the
Mouanko Reserve, which extends from the south shore of the estuary to the Sanaga
River mouth. The mangrove, Rhizophora racemosa, which makes up over 90% of
mangroves, in Cameroon, reaches a height of 40 m in the Wouri estuary (Spalding et al.,
2010). Nypa fruticans, an exotic species imported to Nigeria from South-East Asia, has
been spreading quickly, encouraged by the local people (Saenger, 2002).
The mangrove forests are an important source of wood for making furniture and
fences, for smoking fish and for fuel. The leaves of N. fruticans are used for thatching
house walls and roofs (Atheull et al., 2009). The mangroves act as a buffer zone,
protecting the coast against the worst effects of storms (Ninan, 2009). However, there
are no effective controls on mangrove logging, and the Wouri estuary has undergone
substantial deforestation (Thieme, 2005).
1.2.1.3 Hydrography
The Douala coast lies to the east of Mount Cameroon and the rivers here empty
their water into the Bight of Biafra. These rivers include the Mungo, Wouri, and
Dibamba. The coast is characterized by an estuary which lies in the Douala Basin, a
15
low-lying depression about 30 m on average about sea level, with many creeks, sand
bars and lagoons (Yerima et al., 2005). The Wouri alluvial aquifer
4
, a multi-layer
system with alternating sequences of marine sands and estuarine mud and silt, lies
below the estuary and surrounding region and is an important source of well water. The
upper aquifer in this system is an unconfined sandy horizon that is hydraulically
connected to the brackish waters to the coastal wetlands (Xu et al., 2006). The spring
tides
5
at the mouth of the estuary are 2.8 m. Rainfall is from 4,000 mm to 5,000 mm
annually. Salinity is very low, particularly during the rainy season. Surface salinity of
0.4% is common around Douala throughout the year. The Mungo River splits into
numerous small channels that empty into the estuary complex (Yerima et al., 2005).
The tidal waves
6
in the bay travel as far as 40 km up the Mungo. In this section of the
river, large flats and sand banks are exposed under low tide conditions. The Wouri is
affected by the tides for 45 km above Douala, with blocks of tidal forest along its shores
throughout this stretch. (Austen et al., 1999). To the west of the estuary, the slopes of
Mount Cameroon are covered with banana plantations. To the northeast, the mangroves
are backed by freshwater tidal swamps 5 km wide. One block of freshwater swamps
between Muyuka and Dibombari covers 7,500 ha. There are still some patches of
permanent swamp forest on the Dibamba River, but many others have been cleared and
drained for oil palm plantation. The river's fauna are not well protected; particularly
endangered is the African Manatee (Trichechus senegalensis).
4
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials
(gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be extracted using a water well.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifer. Accessed: 2013/03/07)
5
The exceptionally high and low tides that occur at the time of the new moon or the full moon when
the sun, moon, and earth are approximately aligned or a great flood or rush, as of emotion.
6
A gigantic wave caused by the force of the moon and sun
16
1.2.2
1.2.2
T
in 20
curre
19, 4
upwa
grow
2005
T
metr
annu
grow
popu
2 Socioecon
2.1 Populat
The results
005, indicat
ent statistics
406, 100 in
ard populat
wth rate is e
5 and 2010)
The 1976
opolitan Do
um, the estim
wing rate of
ulation of C
F
nomic Facto
tion
of the 3rd G
ted that the
s show that
nhabitants. T
tion growth
estimated at
(Cameroon
official na
ouala at 45
mated popu
f urbanizat
Cameroun, a
igure 4: Hy
Source: D
ors
General Pop
ere were 17
as of 1st Jan
This growth
h potential
t 2.8 % duri
n`s National
ational pop
58,426. Wit
ulation of th
tion (Asang
and 73.8%
ydrography
Douala Urba
pulation and
7, 463, 836
nuary 2010,
h trend con
in the coun
ing the 197
l Institute of
ulation cen
th an annu
he area toda
gwe, 2006),
of the tota
y of Douala
an Concil
d Housing C
inhabitants
, the popula
nfirms the f
ntry (the av
76-2005 per
f Statistics,
nsus figure
ual growth r
ay is 2.5 m
, and comp
al populatio
a
Census (GPH
s in Camero
ation of Cam
fact that the
verage ann
riod and at 2
2010).
es put the
rate in exc
million enjoy
prises 10.1%
on of the L
HC), conclu
oon. Howe
meroon stoo
ere is a ste
nual populat
2.6 % betw
population
ess of 8%
ying the fas
% of the t
Littoral Reg
uded
ver,
od at
eady
tion
ween
n of
per
stest
total
gion,
17
though it covers a surface area of just 923 km², of a total population of Littoral region,
placed at 20,239 km².
Cameroon`s National Institute of Statistics, 2010, provides the demographic and
economic data of Douala based on the 2005 nationwide population census and the 2009
enterprise census, which are indicative of the growing population and economic
strength of Douala. Douala is clearly the most urbanized city in Cameroon, enjoying yet
rapidly growing population density.
1.2.2.2 Health
The Ministry of Public Health is responsible for the maintenance of all public
health services. Many missionaries maintain health and leprosy centers. The
government is pursuing a vigorous policy of public health improvement, with
considerable success in reducing sleeping sickness, leprosy, and other endemic
diseases. The demand for all types of health services and equipment is high and
constant. The need for modern equipment is especially urgent, with many clinics using
outdated equipment, some of which is imported illegally from Nigeria.
Malaria is prevalent in the Bénoué River Valley, the basin of Lake Chad, the
coastal region, and the forests of southern Cameroon. A large percentage of the adult
population is affected. Other serious waterborne diseases are schistosomiasis and
sleeping sickness, the latter spread by the tsetse fly. Cameroon lies in the yellow fever
endemic zone.
As of 2004, there were an estimated 7 physicians, 36 nurses, 1 dentist, and 1
midwife per 100,000 people. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 5% of
GDP
7
(
Bernhard, 2004
).
In 2005, the average life expectancy was 51 years. The estimated death rate in 2002
was 12.08 per 1,000 people and the birth rate was estimated at 35.66 per 1,000 people.
As of 1999, only an estimated 19% of the country's married women (ages 15 to 49) used
any type of contraception. The infant mortality in 2005 was 65 per 1,000 live births
8
.
7
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Cameroon.aspx (Accessed: 2013/03/20)
8
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Cameroon.aspx (Accessed: 2013/03/20)
18
An estimated 29% of children under the age of five suffered from malnutrition. In
the same year, 62% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 92% had
adequate sanitation. In 1999, Cameroon immunized children up to one year old for
tuberculosis (52%); diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus (48%); polio (37%); and measles
(31%).
The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 6.90 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were
approximately 560,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an
estimated 49,000 deaths from AIDS in 2000.
1.2.2.3 Education
In 2001, the literacy rate of Cameroon was estimated to be 67.9% (77%) for males
and 59.8% for females)
9.
Most children have access to state-run schools that are cheaper
than private and religious facilities (Mbaku, 2005). The educational system is a mixture
of British and French precedents (DeLancey et. al, 2000) with most instruction in
English or French. Cameroon has one of the highest school attendance rates in Africa
(Mbaku, 2005). Girls attend school less regularly than boys because of cultural
attitudes, domestic duties, early marriage and pregnancy, and sexual harassment.
Although attendance rates are higher in the south of the country (Mbaku, 2005), a
disproportionate number of teachers are stationed there, leaving northern schools
chronically understaffed.
As in most large cities in Cameroon, there are several nursery, primary, secondary,
and high schools. In recent years, there has been a surge in the number of private
schools in the cities. More parents tend to send their kids to these schools considering
the fairly elevated standards of the way they are managed. The cities have a vibrant
academic population which is visible during morning rush hours. It is interesting to note
that there is also a large informal educational sector that caters for a huge part of the
population; mostly individuals with a primary school certificate or those with no
education at all. This form of education is common in sectors, such as cloth
manufacturing, bread making, construction, security, car repairs, etc. Individuals from
these informal sectors are by far the most visible in deprived neighborhoods, such as
Bonaberi, Ndokoti, Bepanda, Village, Logbaba.
9
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cm.html (Accessed: 2013/03/07)
19
1.2.2.4 Economy
Cameroon is blessed with an abundance of natural resources, including agriculture,
mining, forestry, and the oil and gas sectors. Cameroon is the commercial and economic
leader in the sub-region, though regional trade, and is highly dependent on commodity
exports, and swings in world prices strongly affect its growth. Cameroon's per-capita
GDP estimated as US$2,300 in 2008 was one of the ten highest in sub-Saharan Africa.
Major export markets include France, Italy, South Korea, Spain, and the United
Kingdom, and more recently China. Cameroon has enjoyed a decade of strong
economic performance, with an average GDP growth of 4 percent per year (CIA World
Fact Book, 2007). During the 2004-2008 periods, public debt was reduced from over 60
percent of GDP to 10 percent and official reserves quadrupled to over USD 3 billion.
Cameroon is part of the Bank of Central African States (of which it is the dominant
economy), the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC), and the
Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA) (CEA-BAC,
2005).
Agriculture, which constitutes about 46%, is the main driving force of the
country's economic life-wire followed by services (33%), and industry (21%).
Meanwhile, the occupational labour force is 70% agriculture, 13% commerce and
industry, and 17% other services (Billa, 2008). The UNDP Human Poverty Index for
Cameroon was 35.9, positioning the nation as the 58th poorest among 94 developing
countries according to the Costa Rica's Profile of Selected Countries (UNDP, 2003a).
The economy of the city of Douala is strongly influenced by the port, industrial,
commerce, tourism, and fisheries sectors. The commercial sector is dominated by
retailing (94.0% of activities). It involves principally agro-alimentary products (fruits
and vegetables, cereals, tubers, meat, fish, beverages, etc.) which constitute 56%,
followed closely by the textiles and accessories sector (22%), and diverse other
products destined for household consumption. Among the services, the most important
has been found to be restaurant services which includes notably street and mobile food
sellers in operation for numerous years; Repair services and transportation services
principally urban transportation services - taxis and motorbikes, and interurban
transport of the merchandise and people. Other important services in Douala include
hairdressing and other personal services; telecommunication and internet services. The
20
informal sector which most of the above services are characterized is strongly
represented in Douala as well as other Cameroonian cities and constitutes mainly
small business unit. Douala is also the centre of industrial activities, such as food
processing and heavy manufacturing, such as cement.
1.2.2.4.1 Agriculture
Cameroon's natural resources are very well suited for agriculture and
arboriculture. An estimated 70% of the population farms, and agriculture comprised
an estimated 19.8% of GDP in 2009
10
. Most agriculture is done at the subsistence
scale by local farmers using simple tools. They sell their surplus produce, and some
maintain separate fields for commercial use. Urban centres are particularly reliant on
peasant agriculture for their foodstuffs. Soils and climate on the coast encourage
extensive commercial cultivation of banana, cocoa, oil palm, rubber, and tea. Inland
on the South Cameroon Plateau, cash crops include coffee, sugar, and tobacco. Coffee
is a major cash crop in the western highlands, and in the north, natural conditions
favour crops, such as cotton, groundnuts, and rice. Reliance on agricultural exports
makes Cameroon vulnerable to shifts in their prices. Cameroon is one of the world's
leading cocoa producers; coffee, rubber, bananas, palm products, and tobacco, all
grown mainly on plantations, are also commercially important. The principal
subsistence crops are banana, cassava, yam, plantain, peanuts, millet, and sorghum. In
spite of this diverse agricultural production, only a small percentage of the country's
land is cultivated, but food production in Cameroon meets domestic demand despite
the occurrence of periodic droughts.
Livestock are raised throughout the country. Fishing industry employs some
5,000 people and provides 20,000 tons of seafood each year
11
. Bush-meat, for long a
staple food for rural Cameroonians, is today a delicacy in the country's urban centres.
The commercial bush-meat trade has now surpassed deforestation as the main threat to
wildlife in Cameroon.
10
http://www.oilexpeller.co.za/africa/Cameroon.html (Accessed: 17/01/2013)
11
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Cameroon (Accessed: 30/02/2013)
1.2
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Details
- Pages
- Type of Edition
- Erstausgabe
- Publication Year
- 2014
- ISBN (Softcover)
- 9783954892464
- ISBN (eBook)
- 9783954897469
- File size
- 24.8 MB
- Language
- English
- Publication date
- 2014 (April)
- Keywords
- Integrated Coastal Management Land Use Value Coastal Area Douala-Cameroon Urban Sprawl
- Product Safety
- Anchor Academic Publishing
