Factors Affecting Instructional Leaders Perception towards Educational Media Utilization in Classroom Teaching

Eshetu, Getnet

Factors Affecting Instructional Leaders Perception towards Educational Media Utilization in Classroom Teaching

by Getnet Eshetu (Author)

Didactics - Common Didactics, Educational Objectives, Methods

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Summary

Solution at Hand to Improve Quality presents the materials necessary for understanding problems and solutions to integrate educational media technology in classroom teaching by exploring factors that affect the perceptions of instructional leaders. A considerable portion of the Solution at Hand to Improve Quality describes the roles of media in improving the quality of teaching-learning process and the roles of different actors. It focuses in identifying the instructional leaders tendency to favor on supplementary or/and substitutive roles of media for classroom teaching in relation to their past training as well as experience. Solution at Hand to Improve Quality also pointed out the reasons behind for instructional leaders’ perception and detailed solutions for the existing problems. Finally, Solution at Hand to Improve Quality presents practical recommendations for curriculum developers, education officials, teachers’ educators, educational media experts, instructional leaders and even to teachers.

Excerpt

Using different methods and frameworks knowing the status of perception of instructional

leaders towards utilization of media in classroom teaching as well as reasons and factors

affecting the integration are the two important steps. But finding solutions for the problems

identified in the first and second steps is the third most important step that gives inspiration to

take practical actions.

1.2.

Problem Statement

In Amhara Regional State of Ethiopia, where the study is conducted, despite the presence of

media technology equipments in schools and organizational structure with qualified human

resource from regional bureau and zone education departments (i.e., ICT core process) to woreda

education offices and school level ICT case workers (i.e., ICT technician for high/preparatory

schools and focal teacher for primary schools) and four media centers (with radio stations) staffs

giving technical and supervisory support the utilization of media technology for classroom

teaching is not satisfactory. The researcher upon his over 20 years of experience in managing

Gondar Education Media Center and giving monitoring and supervision support for schools

witnessed the low level of education media technologies utilization in primary and secondary

schools. In those schools which have good electric facilities, radio sets with dry cells, functional

plasma television systems, computers, generators, school pedagogical centers and with

alternative media materials like CD recorded educational television program and radio programs

recorded in memory stick and/or flash instructional media technology utilization is low. Why is

that? And what will be the solution? These are the key questions that should be answered. There

must be some reasons for the inefficient implementations of media technology for teaching and

learning the researcher inspired to do the present research to find out it and give possible

answers.

Therefore; the intention of this research is to compare the perception status towards educational

media technology utilization for classroom teaching of trained and well experienced instructional

leaders with that of untrained and less experienced once then identify factors affecting perception

and seek possible measures to solve the occurrence of such defaults. The first part compares the

perception status of instructional leaders towards educational media technology utilization for

the two roles of media (i.e., media as supplement and media as substitute) between those who

has got media training and those do not have the training, between those having short and long

experience in teaching, and between those having short and long experience in instructional

leadership. And the second part of the research intention is to identify perception factors under

perceivers; situation and target categories then seek possible measures to solve the occurrence of

such defaults so that instructional media technologies are properly utilized in classroom teaching

to improve students' achievement.

1.3.

Purpose and Significance

Purpose

Looking low level utilization of instructional media technologies like radio and plasma television

program from field visits and monitoring meetings reports Amhara Region Education Bureau in

year 2013 arranged 4 day training workshop for selected 168 instructional leaders to improve

their support to teachers in the use of media technology in classroom teaching. During this

training workshop as the first activity participants are asked to fill questionnaire to measure their

perception towards teacher's instructional media utilization in classroom teaching and in the

following days focus group discussions are conducted to collect data about factor influencing

their perceptions as well as positive measures to solve the problems.

The purpose of this study is to determine the level and difference as well as factors affecting

instructional leaders (i.e., school principals and supervisors) perception towards use of media

technology in classroom teaching and recommends solutions. Specifically to see the existence of

perception difference between those instructional leaders in relation to training, experience,

perception on the role of instructional media as a supplement or substitute. In addition to these to

find out factors that influence perception of instructional leaders towards utilization of

instructional media materials in classroom teaching then give possible remedies for successful

integration.

Significance

This study has significant contribution for all level instructional leaders, supervisors and

principals perception improvement to satisfy the leadership ability to support teachers utilize

instructional media technology in classroom teaching. This study also contributes by giving clue

for decision makers in education sector, educational media materials development specialists,

education media produces as well as curriculum specialists by giving answers for problems

regarding the use of instructional media technology for classroom instruction by teachers. The

study identifies core factors that influenced instructional leader's perception. It gives light to use

the possible ideas found out from the findings as a part of solution to change instructional

leader's perception towards media utilization in classroom teaching.

The study stimulates researchers to further investigate the possible gaps of short trainings and

professional development opportunities to build school principals and supervisors in integrating

instructional media technology for student's achievement. Another contribution of this study is

for institutions involved in the training of aspiring instructional leaders in that they could use the

findings to better prepare educators for leadership positions in school administration.

1.4.

Objectives of the study

The main objective of this research is to answer the question of what are the reasons as well as

factors influencing perception of instructional leaders to play their leadership role as far as

utilization of media technology in classroom teaching.

The following questions were drawn from the literature and used to give guide the study:

Dose the level of perception of instructional leaders for the two roles of media (i.e.,

media as supplement and media as substitute) differ significantly?

Are there differences between the perceptions of instructional leaders that are trained and

untrained about instructional media technology?

Are there differences between perceptions of instructional leaders who have less than or

equal to three years and more than three years of teaching experience?

Are there differences between perceptions of instructional leaders who have less than or

equal to three years and more than three years of leadership experience?

What are the reasons for instructional leader's perception towards media utilization in

classroom teaching?

What are factors that influence perception of instructional leaders towards use of media

technology in classroom teaching?

What are solutions to change the occurrence of defaults so that media technology

properly utilized in classroom teaching?

1.5.

Assumptions

· This study attempted to control both internal and external variables.

· It is assumed that there is a need to measure the level of perception of instructional

leaders to building integration or inclusion of technology into the classroom teaching.

· Respondents may have tended to think they have a lower or higher level of perception

than they actually possessed, therefore, self-reporting could affect the outcome of the

study.

· The focus group discussion participants are the same people who answered the

questionnaire. But since they all are the training participants it is assumed that they

identified the actual existing factors influencing perception.

1.6.

Scope and Limitations of the study

This research is confined in analyzing instructional leaders perception regarding communication

media technology in classroom instruction and giving recommendations identified from the

findings of the study. The participants of the study are among the total over 9,743 distributed all

over the region those 168 instructional leaders (i.e., supervisors and principals) who participated

in the 4 day training workshop conducted in the year 2013 at Enjibara town selected from

Amhara Region Schools and Education Department offices at Woreda and Zone level. Hence, it

was too difficult for the researcher to access all schools found in the region to get all

instructional leaders because of logistic and time constraint. The researcher takes the advantage

of getting all the necessary information from workshop participants (i.e., convenience sampling)

who are represented from all 11 zones and 90 % of woredas of Amhara region. Hence, care must

be taken to generalize the results of the research which is one of the drawbacks of using the

available informant's data collection method. But since the participant's characteristics match

those of the total population and participation in this research as well as in the workshop was

voluntary so that it can be assumed that the participants had full interest in providing honest

information's.

Participants are asked to self-report their perceptions regarding media technology utilization in

classroom teaching using 31 item Likert-scale questionnaire. And in focus group discussion

(FGD) they identified possible factors influencing perception of instructional media technology

used by the teachers in classroom teaching. This is another limitation of the study where reliance

on respondents' self-reported attitudinal data. However, anonymity of the respondent guaranteed

to encourage honest and open responses. Even in focus group discussion voice recording is not

used only a written group reports are utilized. Furthermore, the study is subject to those

weaknesses inherent in one group one test design.

1.7.

Definition of Terms

Information Communication Technology (ICT):- refers to both "old" media such as radio and

television, as well as "new" media such as computers, mobile phone, etc (Fidler, 1997).

Instructional leadership:- is leading and supervision, it is an act of administration, curriculum

work, instruction, human relations, management and the leadership role with various dimensions

like helping, evaluation, procuring and delivery of resource, coordinating, advising and assisting

teachers as well as students; and receiving community feedbacks about the school

programs(Wiles & Bondi,1997; Degree Directory,2011; and Okumbe ,2007).

Instructional Technology:- Instruction using technological materials like computers, audiovisual

equipments, and mass media to aid in teaching all subjects concerned with creating the optimum

teaching and learning environment through the use of technology. The term instructional

technology is interchangeable with educational technology (Dugger, 1999; Newberry, 1999).

Leadership:- it is a relationship between a leader and the followers and a leader is a person who

has the capacity to implement change and helps others to develop their capacity as well through

the process of the change (Markova, 2014).

Perception of media as substitute:- media alone are used for instruction to improve overall

productivity. Hence the teacher need not be physically present in classroom (Taiwo, 2009).

Perception of media as supplement: - media are used to enrich existing instruction. Hence, the

teacher must be physically present in the classroom (Taiwo, 2009).

Perception:- is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition

of environmental stimuli, through which we gain information about properties and elements of

the environment that are critical to our survival (Cherry, 2013).

Principals: - A School administrator who is seen as a chief administrator at the school level

and/or as the official leader of a school in charge of daily operations of the school and

instructional leadership (including supervision of teachers and other staffs like librarians,

secretaries, custodians, finance and purchasers) and community relations

and around the schools

should have to have much diplomacy, sensitivity, and humanity (Starratt, nd).

Supervision :- is considered as any service for teachers that eventually results in improving

instruction, learning, and the curriculum that consists of positive, dynamic, democratic actions

for the continued growth of all concerned the student, the teacher, the supervisor, the

administrator, and the parent as well as the community (Neagley and Evans,1980).

Zone and Woreda :- Ethiopia follows the federal system and is divided into two chartered cities

and nine administrative regions, one of which is the Amhara Region. Zone is a clustered

government administrative system within each Region. Within Zones there are Woredas. Woreda

represent district level government administration structure within a Zone.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter contains mainly history of using instructional media in classroom theoretical

framework of perception which is central concept for conducting the study. The first and second

parts discuss the History and utilization of instructional media technology in classroom teaching.

In the second, third and fourth parts Factors affecting instructional media technology integration

in classroom teaching, the role of instructional leaders and trends of change in perception

described. In the last two parts perception theories, attributes, models and research conceptual

framework are discussed. The literatures also include empirical data that are hoped to shade

some light to the discussion.

2.1. History and Definition of Instructional Media Technology

Media and its use

According to Chiu (2010) citing (Heinich, Molenda & Russeil, 1993; Kupsh, Tanes & Graves,

1990; Levie, 1898), definition Media are vehicles through which messages or knowledge and

skills are conveyed from a presenter or a teacher to the audience or the learner. Technology is

commonly thought of in terms of gadgets, instruments, machines and devises...

(Muffoletto,1994). When we see the nature of `media as a vessel' through which sound is

passing as Yerges (1969), indicated there are different kinds of media in nature, such as air,

water(liquid), and wood(solid) , by which sound emitting from a source travels and then reaches

a receiver. Artificial media in physical world, according to Romiszowski (1988), narrowly

includes those complex electronic communication media, such as films or television, and

uncomplicated devises, such as slides, photographs, diagrams and charts which could effectively

bring about planned instruction. In present day they are called information communication

technology (ICT) as Jo Shan Fu (2013), described includes computers, internet, and electronic

delivery systems such as radios, televisions, and projectors among others, and widely used in

today's education field.

In history of mankind knowledge and experience had been transferred from generation to

generation using different methods like oral story, cave pictures, stone writings, and Egyptian

papyrus. We can say these are the oldest forms of educational media used to retain and transfer

knowledge. According to Saettler (1990), the history of educational technology can be traced

back to the time when tribal priests systematized bodies of knowledge, and early cultures

invented pictographs or sign writing to record and transmit information.

Evolution of educational technology

Educational technology according to Markova (2014), is concerned with learning out comes and

it is a broad field that has the potential to touch virtually eventually every element of teaching

and learning at every education institution. To reach the present day development educational

technology has passed at least five stages in history ( Deka, 2011). The first stage as Deka

(2011), mentioned are non-projected aids usage; which includes use of aids like charts, maps,

symbols, models, specimens and concrete materials. Liu (n.d) said the inventions of Abacus in

3000 B.C, counting board called Salamis Table in 400 B.C., Chinas Swan Pan and Japan Soroba

in 200 A.D. for calculation are some of the earliest types of technologies for education. Newton

(1993) citing Flanagan (1989), said that one of the oldest and most widely used forms of

educational resource regardless of the influx of other instructional media in to classroom are

print materials. Liu (n.d) mentioned that Johannes Gutenberg of Germany printing press used to

print the first book ever, the Bible between 1452 and 1456. He added that horn book in 1650,

slide rule in 1654, school slate and chalkboard in 1890 are used for instruction. But regarding

print materials Kozma (1991) and Romiszowski (1988) stated that are "the most common

medium encountered in learning" and "continue to be the single most common category of

teaching materials". Westbury (1989) said in a daily works of teachers and schools books are

"the central tools and objects of attention in all schooling" (p.476).

According to Deka (2011), the second stage of development in educational technology

associated with electronic revolution, which is the use of various projected audio-visual aids like

projector, magic lanterns, tape-recorder, radio and television. Radio staring from its early days

was a good candidate for mass education and instruction. Casey (2008) and Nasseh (1997),

mentioned that not so far from its early days 1920's that educational radio broadcasting started,

viewed as the most promising new technology with its ability to reach distant learners, that

allows listeners to be far away from their instructors and replaced the old printed type

correspondence courses. Intensifying its power Reiser (2001), states that by the early 1930s

many audio visual advocators were thinking radio as the medium that would revolutionize

education. Radio becomes very popular within short time. Comparing with television Radio was

in existence 38 years before 50 million people tuned in; television took 13 years to reach that

benchmark (Gigliott, 1997). According to Liu (n.d.), the first educational films like the growth of

plants, emergence of butterfly, and undersea views are exhibited in 1902 by Charles Urban. are

introduced by Thomas Edison in classroom. He added that the first television get on air in 1927

and in 1953 television used for classroom education.

The third stage linked with the development of mass media which in turn lead to

`communication revolution' for instructional purposes (Deka, 2011). He added that computer

assisted instruction (CAI) used for education since 1950s also become popular during this era. In

1965 according to Liu (n.d), the first true computer invented and mass produced personal

computers (PC) get into market in large amount and then CAI started in 1980's. Liu also added

in 1990's windows developed and network system introduced following in 1991 World Wide

Web (WWW) were released. The 1990's products like video disk, CD-ROM's, Multimedia,

DVD, Teleconferencing and multiple types of software's started in this same decade.

The fourth stage as Deka (2011), mentioned is identified by the individualized process of

instruction. This is marked Deka added due to the invention of programmed learning and

programmed instruction provided a new dimension to educational technology. In this stage a

system of self learning based on self-instructional materials and teaching machines emerged. The

fifth stage influenced by the concept of system engineering or system approach which focuses

on language laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia technologies

and use of the computer in instruction (Deka 2011).

There are several types of instructional Medias depending on their nature and situations of

utilization. Enguday (2003) citing Amare (2003) stated that instructional media includes persons,

print media, audio (radio recordings), audio-visual materials (television, video, and motion

pictures), visuals (pictures, charts) and enactive media such as real objects. In Polizzi (2011),

research ICT refers to both old media; such as radio and television, as well as new media; such

as desktop and laptop computer, and ICT integration into teaching refers to both teaching

through the media and teaching about the media. In another document Sive(1983), classified

media in terms of attributes in to the following categories: "audio, printed, projected still-visual,

motion-visual, and audio-motion-visual" (p.24). According to Abimbade (1997); Afolabi,

Abidoye & Afolabi (2012) instructional media can be classified into three categories: non-print

such as projected materials like films, slides, film-strips; printed media are like books, text,

maps, journals and electronic media consists of visual, audio and audio-visuals that relies on

electricity to function effectively (p.2).

The term instructional technology as Newberry (1999), said can be titled several things, such as

educational technology, computer technology, and information technology. Rubin (2013) adds

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as instructional medium and went further to

stress that not only is ICT the base of learning environment, but also it provides individuals to

have lifelong learning, to improve educational outcomes, to learn new occupational skills, and

decrease inequalities between groups. According to Dugger (1999), educational technology

involves "using technological developments such as computers, audiovisual equipments, and

mass media to aid in teaching all subjects- is concerned with creating the optimum teaching and

learning environment through the use of technology". (p.58) Therefore educational technology

can be defined as " a combination of the process and tools involved in addressing educational

needs and problems, with an emphasis on applying the most current tools: computers and their

related technologies" (Roblyer & Edwards, 2000).

Almost every material that is used to disseminate information can be defined as instructional

media materials. As Romiszowski (1996), mentioned instructional media include newspapers,

magazines, pictures, text books, laboratory equipments, audiocassettes, tapes, film scripts and

slides, overhead and opaque projectors, real objects and computers. Romiszowski also included

traditional materials such as chalkboards, handouts, charts and videotapes, as well as newer

materials and methods such as DVDs, CD-ROMs, Internet, and interactive video conferencing as

instructional Medias. Moreover Robert (2011), indicated that within the last decades multitude of

technological advances like iPod, iPad, USB Flash Drive, High definition television, and smart

phone are few examples that revolutionized our daily lives. Therefore instructional media

according to Ajelabi (2000), refers to a broad range of information carrying resources that

constitute and integral component of classroom teaching and learning, and are utilized in an

instructional process with the hope of facilitating effective and efficient communication in the

teaching and learning process. But technology education is different from educational

technology, which most of the time called instructional technology. In this regard technology

education's main focus is to "develop technological literacy in all students through the study of

and about technology" (Newberry, 1999).

Multimedia in Education

Integrating educational technology is a process of determining and implementing specific tools

and methods are appropriate for a given classroom situation and problems. The best way of using

media for education purpose is multimedia approach. Multimedia means according to Chiu

(2010) Fetterman(1997) and Beckman(1996), is a combinations of various media that include

one or more media such as graphics, video, animation, images, and sound in addition to textual

information and they mainly includes such combinations like: projected still-visual, audio-

projected still-visual, and audio-motion-visual. However Dillon and Gabbard(1999), argued that

the impact of multimedia instructional materials on a person's higher order cognitive skills

improvement is not well established and stated that there is no convincing evidence for increased

learning in multimedia environments. But Jonassen (1989), Delany & Gilbert (1991), states that

multimedia is attention-capturing or engaging to use and represents a natural form of

representation with respect to the workings of the human mind. In addition to this Collier (1987)

and Barrett (1988), researches show that with multimedia, users can explore information in-depth

on demand and interact with instructional material on a self-paced mode. Knowing the

importance of instructional media to expand and enrich knowledge many countries utilized it in

combination with printed materials as well as audio recordings for their primary, secondary and

university education. For instance in Kdevries (2007), document it was stated that;

In Asia, the 44 radio and TV universities in China (including the China Central Radio

and Television University), Universitas Terbuka in Indonesia, and Indira Ghandi

National Open University have made extensive use of radio and television, both for

direct class teaching and for school broadcasting, to reach more of their respective

large populations. Japan University of the Air was broadcasting 160 television and

160 radio courses in the year 2000 with supplemental print materials, face-to-face

instruction, and online tutorials.

One of best known implementation of multimedia in instruction is utilization of radio. Dewey

(1937) stated that by being offered in conjunction with traditional text-based curricula,

educational radio made according to educational theory of the day that proposed active

engagement of students in materials, interactively and engagement between teachers and

students, as well as opportunities for more experimental learning would create a more solid, and

successful learning environment all possible. As Haworth & Hopkins (2009), stated that radio is

considered best by educators who practiced traditional, non-engaging methodology in its use in

classroom teaching. They added that educational radio also had effect of foreshadowing future

implementation of educational technology and this can be explained in the manner in which

other technologies such as television and the internet were incorporated in education because of

the framework that was previously laid out by radio. Radio undergoes some modification to

make it more communicating and interactive. This idea described in Dock and Helwig (1999),

explanation of Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) in that it is a methodology developed to make a

typical one-way technology into a tool for active learning inside and outside of the classroom,

continues to be an attractive educational strategy in developing countries. Dock and Helwig

added that IRI may be described as interactive lesson in which an external teaching element,

delivered by a distant teacher through the medium of radio or audiocassette, is carefully

integrated with classroom teachers and learners.

The begging of utilization of modern media technologies for education in Ethiopia

If we consider everything which is deliberately prepared to convey a message as media there are

different forms of ancient writings and cave pictures in different parts of Ethiopia. But if we

consider just the form of media that used for education purpose the oldest media is The Bible

written in Geez. The early form of Ge'ez was written in boustrophedon, which is writing in

alternate lines in opposite directions, as from left to right and then from right to left on the next

line, and then left to right on the next line, and so on. (Asher, 1994,p.1149). The Bible was

translated into Ge'ez from Greek. Greek influence is also seen in the organization of the Ge'ez

letters, which is very similar to Greek alphabet organization (Asher, 1994, P. 1149).

The history of modern print media in Ethiopia as Neggussie (2006), pointed out can be traced

back to the reign of Menelik II who ruled from 1889-1913. He added that the first medium to be

introduced was weekly news paper La Semaine d'Ethiopia, 1890, published in French by a

Franciscan missionary living in Harar. Neggussie (2006), in his writing mentioned that the first

Amharic newspaper was issued in 1895 and it was handwritten a four page weekly newspaper

named Aemero. After this between 1912 and 1915 weekly newspapers like Melekete Selam,

Yetor Wore and many others emerged (Neggussie, 2006).

Regarding electronics media Ethiopia has a rich experience spanning more than three decades in

using radio and television to support primary, secondary and non-formal education (Tilson &

Demissew,2000). According to Ethiopian Mass Media (2000), the audio (radio) and video

(television) technologies emerged in Ethiopia in 1935 and in 1964 respectively. Tilson &

Demissew (2000), added that Educational Media Agency (EMA) of the Ministry of Education,

which has provided the leadership in this area, traces is origin to the Audio-Visual Center,

established 1952/53. Tilson and Demissew (2000), said the Center developed, produced and

distributed audio-visual teaching aids, and even had a mobile team that traveled to villages and

schools to show films and slides. Mass media, radio and television, under the Ministry of

Education covering over 90% of the country have been playing a very important role in the

formal education in Ethiopia unique among the developing counties (Gupta,1995).

In 1965, a year after the introduction of television in the country, television became the first

technology for broadcasting educational programs using the facilities of the Ministry of

Information (Tilson & Demissew,2000). They added that in 1969, EMA started broadcasting

from its own studio, an indication of its technical and production attainment. At that time, as a

result of increased enrollment in schools, the multiple shift system was introduced, and EMA had

to repeat the broadcast of lessons for each shift. Later in 1971, educational radio broadcasting

was initiated after a humble experiment using audiocassette programs in a prison in Addis

Ababa(Tilson & Demissew,2000). Unlike many developing countries where school broadcasts

are often a result of partnership between the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of

Information (Kdevries,2007), in Ethiopia all school radio broadcasts are done independently by

Education Bureaus and educational satellite television broadcast are in collaboration with

Telecommunication Corporation.

The first transmitter that was donated by and erected with the help of government of The

Netherlands has been operational since 1971 in Sidamo, Wolayeta(Gupta,1995). After this,

studios and transmitters procured and 12 Education Media Centers are established in different

parts of Ethiopia. Beginning from 1991, the administration and management of the educational

system follows the decentralized government structure in Ethiopia and becomes one of the duties

of the Region Education Bureaus. Mehadi and Tesfaye (2010), citing (TGE, 1994; MoE, 2006)

stated that the Ethiopian Education and Training Policy promises to intensify the integration of

instructional technology in school curriculum. Citing Teshome (1998), Enguday (2003) indicated

that research and discussions about radio support programs in Ethiopia conclusions suggested the

main goals of using radio for formal education are improving educational access, student

learning, school resources, teacher competence, and educational relevance. Edguday added that

the long term goal of the policy is to improve the quality and relevance of education as well as to

expand access and quality.

Amhara Region Instructional Media Utilization

In Amhara region in both Primary as well as in Secondary education instructional media

technologies are utilized for classroom teaching. There are four educational media centers having

radio station and full staff members equipped with recording and transmitters. Almost all

Secondary schools have plasma television set with signal reception systems as well as computers

with few exceptions of the newly established once. Almost all primary schools do have radio sets

with memory flash recorded education programs. There is ICT core process with staff members

at bureau level and the structure exists in zone, woreda and school level to facilitate material

procurement, installation, maintenance service and to give utilization training for teacher.

As Enguday (2003), indicated particularly in Amhara Region Education Bureau Primary School

teachers training colleges the expected profile of the teachers are to acquire the necessary

professional capabilities which means the competency to select and apply appropriate and varied

learner centered methods and teaching aids as well as using educational mass media is one.

Edguday citing Education Sector Development Program (ESDP) and Amhara Region Education

Bureau (1999), report indicated that teachers of lower primary school in Ethiopia are expected to

prepare and use instructional media as far as they can in order to enhance and concretize teaching

and learning because it is particularly important due to the fact that student's abstraction level is

low or not fully develop.

2.2. Instructional Technology Importance in Classroom Teaching

Function of instructional media

Learning requires retention of what our sense organs receive and our brain analyzed. But this

retention becomes minimal if the information we received is through one sense organ however

the process will be enhanced if the reception is through multiple resources. According to Wiman

& Mierhenry (1969), people generally remember 10 percent of what they read, 20 percent of

what they hear, 30 percent of what they see, and 50 percent of what they hear and see. Therefore,

it is advisable to use multiple resource for education as Edgar Dale in his cone of experience

Tadesse (2001), indicated "audio-visual materials supply concrete basis for conceptual thinking,

they give rise to meaningful concepts enriched by meaningful association, hence they offer the

best antidote for the disease of verbalism". This was verified by Marshal (2002), technology

through sound, text, and pictures can create learning environments that support the making of

associations by providing access to new challenges, contexts, and information that might

otherwise be impossible in their absence. Marshal added that multimedia sometimes working

alone and other times together, can create rich environments conductive to the acquisition of

knowledge.

The use of modern instructional technologies enhance teaching, and learning by promoting all

the characteristics of successful learning:

gain and retain knowledge, develop critical thinking skill, integrate knowledge

within and across disciplines, the ability to work in a team to solve problems, to

excite and motivate students, to effectively communicate with students to bring latest

information to students, to be well prepared to teach (Marshal,2002).

Among many elements of school quality indicated by Getahune (2000) citing Bruce (1986: 20),

two of them are the presence of Instructional media (radio) and Active learning by students

(participation). Chiu (2010a), in his presentation indicated that audio-visual media and other

instructional materials play two major roles in instruction: ether as instructional support or as the

teaching method itself. Hardesty (1984), also listed four advantages of using media; "1) Reach a

large audience; 2) extend the influence of quality instruction; 3) overcome time and space; and 4)

create special effects to enhance learning". (p.12) Moreover Tadesse (2001), says audio-visual

materials help in completing the triangular process of learning vis-à-vis, motivation, clarification

and stimulation. Regarding patterns of using media for instruction Chiu (2010a) citing Stoddart

(1986), mentioned three patterns as additive, integrated, and independent approaches. The use of

media particularly radio and television broadcast for education purpose further described by

Kdevries (2007), are three general approaches which are : 1) direct class teaching, where

broadcast programming substitutes for teachers on a temporary basis; 2) school broadcasting,

where broadcast programming provides complementary teaching and learning resources not

otherwise available; 3) general educational programming over community, national and

international stations which provide general and informal educational opportunities. Kdevries

mentioned the most notable and best documented example of direct class teaching approach to

improve the quality of teaching and act as a regular structured aid to teachers in under-resource

schools is Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) which is implemented in Latin America and Africa

many countries, particularly in Asia it was implemented in 1980s and 1990 in Thailand,

Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. Regarding example of broadcast television for direct class

teaching Kdevries(2007), mentioned the 1968 Mexico's Telesecundaria as a cost effective

strategy for expanding lower secondary schooling in small and remote communities. Kdevries

further described the third approach as non-formal educational opportunities for all types of

learners using several types of programs like news, documentaries, quiz shows, educational

cartoons, etc. He mentioned some examples in United States like Sesame Street, National

Geographic, Discovery television shows and regarding radio program like Voice of America and

The Farm Radio Forum of Canada which began in 1940s that serves as a model for radio

discussion programs worldwide. In another document Romisziowski (1998), has grouped the

role of media in to two that; one is media used as exclusively instructional aids, to enhance or

enrich the teacher's presentation and the second is media as instructional system where they are

used to promote individualization of instruction in both conventional as well as non-conventional

setting. Furthermore Taiwo (2009), strengthened the idea of educational media two basic

functions both for teaching and avenues for learning i.e., as instructional aid and system by

enhancing clarity in communication, diversity in method, and forcefulness in appeal by so doing

these media will determine more than anything else the quality of the educational effort.

It is the combined effects of multimodal sensory perception which makes media more powerful

tool for instruction. Sabirah (2009), described about ICT help to improve quality of education as

motivating students to learner: video, television and multimedia computer programs with

combined effects of text, sound, color, and motion provide challenging and authentic content that

will engage the student in learning. Similarly interactive radio with sound effects, songs, and

dramatizations motivate student to listen and be involved in the lessons. He added that it also

helps in facilitating the acquisition of basic skills: through drill and practice ICT media can

improve student's higher order thinking skills and creativity. Syazwan (2009), indicated that ICT

can enhances learner-center learning: such as active learning, collaborative learning, creative

learning and evaluative learning. Sabirah (2009), also added that ICT enhancing teacher training:

it can improve access and the quality of teacher training; countries like South Korea, China, and

India utilized it through their universities for professional development of their in-service

primary and secondary school teachers.

In many parts of the world the need to implement problem solving, creative thinking and

cooperative learning to promote students intellectual capacity makes educators integrate media

technologies (Haack, 2003). A good summary of contributions of instructional media in

classroom teaching Streit, Teague & Newhouse (1984), mentioned the following four points;

Students were able to see the world by visual materials such as film-strips, slides,

and prints, which provided a variety of learning experience;

Accurate information of visuals & sounds could be communicated to the students

by media as vehicles;

Instructional media maximized options for securing learning experiences for

instructors by giving free choice and;

Different methods to help students attain learning objectives.

Because of these instructional advantages Afolabi et.al., (2012), stressed importance of provision

of instructional media materials as "government and other stakeholders in education sector

should as a matter of urgency supply schools with all the necessary instructional media to

enhance effective teaching and learning of social studies and other school subjects"(p.6).

Multimedia effects

Referring to Merriam-Weber in his writing Marshall (2002), described multimedia as "using,

involving, or encompassing several media." He added citing Mayer (2001), that conceptualizes

multimedia across three areas: delivery hardware (i.e., computer screen, audio speaker, or

television), presentation mode (i.e., words and/or pictures), and sensory modalities (i.e., auditory

or visual). Confirming the effectiveness of multimedia Chiu (2010), citing Kupsh, Jones, &

Graves (1990) suggested that media used with effective strategies in presentation could hold a

longer span of the audience's attention and add flavor to classrooms and to business meetings.

This happens because as Marshall (2002), indicated educational technologies with their multiple

modalities (audiovisual) have the ability to go beyond audio in that they not only present

multiple media, but they can also promote the learner to contemplate information, perform tasks,

refine thinking, and demonstrate understanding which we call active learning. Technology

prompt learning is the use of multiple media to present information for instance Marshall (2002),

says in the case of television and film, visual and auditory media combine to present a rich

experience for the viewer. Furthermore Getahun (2002), citing Schramm (1977) has realized the

importance of multimedia instruction which facilitate the effectiveness of learning as follows:

We have pointed out that almost all teaching is multimedia, and that "teacher

instruction" as measured in most experiments and compared with `media

instruction" is usually teacher plus more. We have thousand years of educational

history to tell us that teachers themselves believe multimedia instruction is more

effective than a single medium (1977:38).

Multimedia utilization makes learners more motivated which result in the ownership of the ideas

presented. But as Lehrer (1993), stated the process of internalizing and building ideas from a

multimedia presentations required learners to transform information into dimensional

representations, determine the relative importance of content, segment information into nodes,

link the information segments by semantic relationships, and decide how to represent ideas.

Onasanya (2008), stressed that learners should be assisted, encouraged and motivated not only to

learn but also to continue to learn. To help learners acquire the new ideas effectively Lehrer

(1993), mentioned using interactive tools to develop content helped engage students in the

curriculum, increase knowledge retention, and build student ability to apply knowledge to other

topics.

Students' perspective

The present day to day life requires knowhow of technology equipments. Robert (2011), citing

Thomas (2005), suggested Dewey saying "Education is not just the preparation for life but,

rather, education is life" for this to happen technology can be an active tool in bringing Dewey's

educational visions to realization in today's classrooms. Technology according to Massachusetts

Software Council (1994), lends itself well to learning and instruction because it is a powerful

tool that, when properly implemented, improves student learning and achievement. Therefore as

Newberry (1999), mentioned it to participate fully in today's workforce and enjoy the new

innovative leisure activities, students need to study technology thoroughly.

Although technology is often viewed as a strategy that will facilitate student' academic

achievement as Waxman et al., (2013) citing several researchers (Cuban, 2001; Leonard &

Leonard,2006; Padro'n, Waxman, Lee, Lin & Michko, 2012) stated that there technology is not

being integrated in schools, especially into the teaching and learning process. Those involved in

education sector have a duty to ensure that all of the students have an appropriate familiarity with

the technology that is so rapidly remarking the world; so that they get skills they need to function

effectively in the world of work (Gigliott, 1997). It is not only to prepare students for future life

but primarily as Seels (2011), stated utilization of media facilities in classroom teaching improve

pupils learning, interest, motivation, attention, participation, perception and retention. In addition

to these Instructional media enrich learner's knowledge and reinforce verbal instruction; which

means as Afolabi et.al., (2012) citing Ajelabi (2000:2), mentioned when instructional media are

used, there is tendency to make classroom environment lively and interesting.

Russell (1982), compared the traditional and modern media in that electronic media provided

variety and excitement that printed materials and lectures alone lacked and were building blocks

for building basic information, as well as passive stimuli to induce students' active expression.

Use of traditional media for instruction is the characteristics of teacher-centered learning

According to Derebssa (n.d);

There are many reasons that teacher-centered learning needs to shift learner-centered

learning. One is that student-centered learning is more aliened with the lifelong

learning skills needed in the workforce of the information age. Second, with the rapid

changes in history and culture, textbooks based and teacher-led learning has become

obstacle. Instead technology resources are replacing these obstacle approaches to

create an interactive learner-centered classroom.

So that as Kongshem (2002), said students learn to use technology to be productive citizens,

education must harness the many powers of technology to improve instruction and create

relevant learning environment. Regarding the effects of media Robert (2011), stated that students

get excited when technology is used in the classroom, and their excitement results in a greater

comprehension of the curriculum. In addition Robert says technology provides students with the

opportunity to become more involved with their learning, allowing them to interact with the

content. Therefore as Light (2009), mentioned it when effectively integrated into a high-quality

learning environment ICT can help deepen students' content knowledge, engage them in

constructing their own knowledge, and support the development of complex thinking skills.

Integrating media in classroom teaching allows students to participate on more kinesthetic type

activities that give students a chance to show what they taught (Robert, 2011). According to

Afolabi et al., (2012) citing Ambimbade (1997), it also makes students learn more and retain

better what they have been taught and that it also promotes and sustains student' interests; it also

allows the learners to discover themselves and their abilities.

Although utilization of media for instruction considered very effective motivate and attain

learning objectives of student's one factor that preventing this is their perception to media. As

Gundacker, Waltenstorfer & Gumpendorferstr

(1999), mentioned the audio-visual perception of

the world of young people and their desire for communication can be realized through the

filming process as part of film education. In one research Lehrer (1993), found out that high level

involvement and engagement of both high and low ability levels students where becomes very

task-oriented and autonomous as they gained confidence with the technology tools used to create

the interactive projects. Therefore as Sandholtz (1997), stated by engaging students in learning

through the use of technology, students spend more time learning and practicing the basic tasks

than student who approach the same tasks in a traditional paper-and-pencil manner. In addition

to this Robert (2011) citing Fore and Spencer (2007), stated that students get excited when

technology is used in the classroom, and their excitement results in a greater comprehension of

the curriculum.

Media enriched environment has got plenty of advantages for students but there are factors that

affect their involvements. As Haack (2003), said students in technology supported classroom

have powerful tools to help them gather information, consult with colleagues, and present their

findings that shows technology, fused into new learning models, can improve student

achievement. At risk students have shown a great improvement when technology is introduced

into their curriculum. Many experts believe the reason for this is that technology provides

educators with a way to individualize and customize the curriculum to match learner's

developmental needs, and provides a non-threatening and motivating environment for repetitious

learning tasks (Sinatra, Beaudry, Pizzo & Geisert , 1994). As Afolabi et al., (2012), indicated

several factors female participation in technology in that female student often run away from

science and technological subjects because of social pressures and potential attitude of female

role models. They further added the problem of gender difference that in secondary schools boys

and girls feel that teachers, counselors and parents perceive science subjects especially

technology as male oriented field course. Another factor that influences student's involvement in

technology is attitude. As Apple Corporation (2002), stated that students who have positive

reaction to use technology as a learning tool will significantly increase their learning, negative

student's reactions most certainly will impede learning. Positive student perceptions and

performance in such situation according to Clark (1985), may result as much from the novelty of

the information technology as from the impact of the technology on the teaching and learning

process. A longer exposure in ICT environment can foster students' higher critical thinking skill

so that they can attain higher levels of cognition like analysis, synthesis, evaluation ( Bonwell &

Eison, 1991; Shan Fu, 2013), and they can integrate their prior experience (Tadesse,2001).

Therefore, Shan Fu (2013) says schools are strongly advised to integrate technology across all of

the learning areas and among all learning levels. There are several inherent advantages for

students when media is used in instruction;

First, effective uses of media are vital for encouraging and facilitating students'

learning. Second, through the use of media subject content can be more carefully

selected and organized. Thus, the quality of instruction delivered by teacher can be

delivered in a well organized, consistent, specific and clearly defined manner. Third,

teacher's delivery of instruction can be much more standardized as learners' with

varying abilities can receive the same message and their individual differences

catered for using media. Also, instructional media usage in practical teaching can

make instruction to be much more interesting and enjoyable.

Teachers' perspective

From teachers' point of view as Onasanya (2008) citing Agun (1988), instructional media are

those materials used by teachers to present, illustrate and elucidate the lesson. Onasanya further

described media can promote in addition to student-student, student-teacher interaction it also

improves teacher-teacher interaction that promotes stimulus variation for feedback as well as

reinforcement. Media also save teaching time as they require short time to present large

information (Onasanya, 2008). In another document Morris (1962), mentioned the function of

technological media is to supplement the teacher through enhancing his effectiveness in the

classroom. In this regard Bastable, Gramet, Jacobs and Sopezyk (2010) media have a potential to

assist learners not only in acquiring knowledge and skills but also in retaining more effectively

what they learn. To do this objective Bastable and et al., (2010) added that instructional media

should reinforce and supplement-not substitute for for-the educator's teaching efforts.

Implementing instructional media in classroom according to Robert (2011), provided teachers

with the opportunity to reflect on their practices while embracing new, innovative strategies that

motivate and enhance student learning. Tadesse (2001) in his research paper mentioned citing

Aggarwal (1986:154), about advantages of technological media devices as they help the teacher

clarify, establish, correlate and co-ordinate accurate concepts, interpretations and appreciations

and enable him/her to make learning more concrete, effective, interesting, inspirational,

meaningful and vivid. In addition to these since students enter into schools with varying degree

of abilities and potentials, teachers need instructional media to help them communicate

effectively, and thus cope with students' needs based on their abilities (Onasanya, 2008).

One of the many objectives of lesson planning improves retention by increasing interaction and

empowering students. So instructional process as Gigliott (1997), mentioned demands teachers

prior planning and preparation; to be organized and adaptable; make it more suited to students

preferred learning style; use multiple message delivery means like text, sound and images to

enrich and enliven the classroom so that communication between everyone in the classroom.

Bringing media materials along in the class doesn't bring the desired objectives Light (2009),

says that teachers must know how to structure lessons, select resources, guide activities, and

support this learning process; many traditionally- trained teachers are not prepared to take on

these task which requires more student centered learning.

The instructional media programs have got multifaceted advantages they are not only important

for students but also they help teachers improve their teaching methods and to change their

attitude towards utilization of media in classroom. Such idea suggested in many documents for

instance Cavanaugh, Gillan, Kromrey, Hess & Blomeyer (2004), described that in addition to

targeting students, progressive educational radio could also focus on teachers, assisting them in

learning the methods of teaching. This fact also verified by Bianchi (2002), in that teachers who

created media programs at the school agreed with the principles of its effectiveness and through

programming, tried to demonstrate that when the classroom teacher actively facilitated learning,

students were more attentively and involved. But Taiwo (2009) citing Lewis (1990:144), study

that tested fifteen questions in an effort to determine teacher perceptions relative to education

media his findings were that teachers perceive educational media as being readily available and

that they perceive formal training in the area of audiovisual instruction as being unnecessary. In

particular in United States utilization of radio in education (educational Radio) according to

Postman (1993), met with a collision between difficulty and confusion; by so-called

"technophobes" and "technophiles". Haworth & Hopkins (2009), also described about the

hindrance to the widespread adoption of radio in education is that teachers and students needed

to be prepared to interact with the content of the radio program. This exclusion of many

alternative effective educational media materials as Derebssa (nd) research findings obtained

from classroom observation and analysis of curricular materials, for students in Ethiopia school

system is because of the fact that repetition is associated with creating a deep impression or

develop understanding by discovering new meaning ... and lecture method is found to be more

appropriate for establishing such understanding.

Instructional leaders' perspective

Due to the presence of complex multiple types of message delivery, retrievals as well as

accumulation technologies teachers should be taught how to make and utilize different

instructional media materials. However instructional media intrinsic value in teaching and

learning processes as Onasanya (2008), stated educators have recognized long time ago and this

intern engendered the inclusion of components of media education, in teacher training programs.

Because of this school leaders didn't give proper concern towards integration of media materials

in classroom teaching. In this regard Polizzi (2011), research result shows that principal's

behavior seems to be independent from teachers' attitudes towards ICT integration into teaching,

in that there is no relationship between teachers' attitudes towards ICT integration in teaching

and principals' supportive behaviors. Haack (2003), study also did not find gender or access to

technology significantly influenced the perception of principals their basic technology skills and

abilities to satisfy administrative and teaching technology standards. In contrast to these in

Robert (2011), study about effects of technology in classroom teaching on principal at rural

school reported that technology in rural schools brings the world to the children like virtual field

trips give kids the opportunity to see things they would have never seen before. Another benefit

of principals had seen on their campuses concerning technology was its ability to help low-

performing students achieve. In Robert (2011), study one principal stated that technology has

made a difference in our school because it serves as a needed resource for both our teachers and

students because with the use of technology we have been able to meet the needs of our low

performing students. But many research according to Waxman et al., (2013), suggested that

school leaders play a key role in determining whether or not technology is integrated in their

schools. They added citing Ritchie (1996) that the lack or presence of leadership support

negatively or positively influences technology adoption and implementation in schools

respectively.

Media Specialists/ School Pedagogical Centers experts' perspective

In the year 1975 the term `school library media center' and `school library media specialist' had

been introduced then the concept of libraries and person working in them was changed to

resource based teaching and learning where the concept of the learner as a problem solver and

director his/her learning using the instructional method that provide access to a variety of media

formats and technologies (Gwendolyn, 1998). The library media specialist as the instructional

consultant and partner according to Gwendolyn (1998:3), give advice and share experience to

classroom teacher in their responsibilities of the teaching process as they design, implement and

evaluate instruction for and with students. He added that in USA some public institutions who

responded to the call developed libraries plus audiovisual centers but staffed and housed them in

separate quarters so that most visionary instructional leaders hired broadly trained persons to

oversee the development and execution of library centers which contained print and non-print

resource.

A study of pedagogical centers in primary schools of Addis Ababa, Getahun (2002) citing Amare

and Tasew (1996:36), indicated that the availability of educational materials has received

increasing attention in the last couple of decades because of growing evidence that it is an

important correlates and a classroom achievement. However one of the several factors that

hinder the utilization of media for classroom instruction according to Engudy (2003), research

findings are lack of effort on the part of the teacher him/herself to go find from pedagogical

centers and use, lack of facilities in schools to prepare media materials, shortage of time to learn

about the available media materials, lack of trained pedagogical center personnel, lack of

coordination between schools and responsible bodies to prepare training workshop, and in-

service trainings are some of problems mentioned.

Research findings reviled effectiveness of media technology for education

About the function of Instructional media technology reviewing several documents Chiu

(2010a), stated that they are employed to enhance instructional effectiveness and help the

learners attained their learning objectives or change their behavior. Moreover Light (2009) citing

(Hennessy, Deaney & Ruthven, 2003; Kozma & McGhee, 2003), said cooperative and

supportive relationship of students with teachers which is very important for learning as different

researches in many countries identified that can be improved by introduction of technology into

the learning environment. Marshall (2002), described that the process of learning, including the

linking of existing knowledge to newly acquired content, suggests that technology can, and dose,

facilitate learning.

In his experimental research Lehrer (1993), students in the multimedia and control group ( i.e.,

who learned traditionally) immediately no significance difference but after a year, important

difference emerged. Lehrer finding showed student in the control group could recall almost

nothing about the historical content, whereas students in the multimedia group displayed

elaborate concepts and ideas that they had extended to other areas of history which is a

knowledge that was richer, better connected, more applicable in the future and have significantly

higher level of engagement. In another research Okolo and Ferretti (1998), showed that student

composition representing ideas simultaneously through text and audio, video and sound i.e., use

of wider range of media, increased the likely hood that students will acquire an understanding of

complex information. In addition to this Okolo and Ferretti noted that students with a wide range

of abilities i.e., readily mastered these tools, and were highly motivated by the opportunity to

enhance their writing with other media which means student's exposure to multimedia

instruction increased their variety of expression enhanced attitudes as well. Marshall (2002),

reviewing more than 50 research studies addressing voice, video, and computer-based learning

provide conclusive evidence that students can, and do, learn from educational technologies.

Another research conducted by Robert (2011), of the 265 comments about how technology had

influenced their schools, only 8.3% of the principals reported technology had no influence or a

negative influence. According to Robert finding the reason given over 50% of the time was a

lack of resources, so that they state that technology really had not impacted the students yet.

Because of all these facts several measures have been recommended to improve student's

attitude and academic achievement in school subjects (Afolabi et al., 2012). Among the measures

that improved students' academic achievement recommended by Afolabi et al.,(citing Oyedeji,

2002; Afuwape, 2004), are appropriate uses of teaching methods, instructional media and

resource and enriched classroom.

2.3. Factors Affecting Instructional Media Technology Integration in Classroom Teaching

2.3.1. Intrinsic and Extrinsic barriers to instructional media integration in classroom

teaching

Enguday (1988) citing Callahan & Clark (1988), noted that in actual classroom situation the

degree to which teachers utilize instructional media has become one of the major challenges in

the field of education. Particularly in developing country as Light (2009) citing (Light & Menso,

2006; Perez et al., 2003) , stated ICT integration in classroom is challenging because of a number

of factors such as teachers knowledge, time, access to ICT tools, inability to alignment of ICT

with pedagogical goals. Ether (1999), categorized barriers of technology integration by teachers

into two broader classifications: first-order barriers `extrinsic' to teachers (access, time, support,

resources, and training) and second-order barriers `intrinsic' to teachers (attitudes, beliefs,

practices and resistance).

Every institution according to Markova (2014), has its own traditions and culture that help its

members to define who they are, how they perform their jobs, and what they believe in as a

group. When we see external factors affecting ICT integration at school level in general Shan Fu

(2013), included ICT technology availability and accessibility, time to plan for instruction,

technical and administrative support, school curriculum, school climate and culture, teaching

load and management routine, and pressure to prepare students for national entrance exam. Shan

Fu (2013), also added internal factors related to teaching includes; understanding of ICT use;

beliefs, which may conflict with the application of ICT; attitudes toward technology integration;

perceptions including intention or motivation to use ICT; self-confidence and knowledge;

technology skills; readiness to use ICT; and technology self-efficacy. In particular Ertmer

(1999), Holloway (1996), Susan (1997), Mehadi & Tesfaye (2010) citing (Moore et al., 2005;

Earl, 2002; Arends,1997; Betz, 2000) , identified the barriers affecting teachers: first-order

barriers extrinsic to teachers (access, time, support, resources, training, teaching tasks like

amount of subject taught/weekly load and number of students in class) and second-order barriers

intrinsic to teachers (attitudes, beliefs, practices, resistance). Ertmer added that even if every

first-order barriers were removed, teachers would not automatically use technology they continue

to affect but from time to time they vanish. Other factors which are barriers of technology

integration even when both intrinsic and extrinsic barriers removed are; teachers' reluctant

(Ertmer, 1999:51), phobia for certain medium and not convinced that teaching with words alone

is very tedious, wasteful and ineffective (Enguday, 2003 citing Romiszowski, 1974), and fear of

using any other form of technology (Duhaney, 2000). Teachers resistance in the form of

traditional instructional beliefs may be acting as major negative factor in the implementation of

technology in education(Handal, 2004), this is because according to Ponticell (2003), they have

been shown to be conservative as a group that reflexively resist curricular and instructional

innovation.

The issue of pre and in-service teacher's trainings are a responsibility of educational

administrators and leaders. Because Susan (1997), indicated that many teachers encountered

technical and logistical problems that they cannot solve themselves and often lack the training

and support necessary to resolve the problems. Regarding training according to Grabe and Grabe

(1998), study approximately fifty percent of teacher-education graduates surveyed felt they were

either not prepared or were poorly prepared to use technology. Shan Fu (2013), identified three

barriers to effective technology integration from education leaders perspective include: school

inspectors focus more on the quantity of course content and student test scores than on ICT usage

(citing Yildirim, 2007); lack of appropriate administrative support for the effective use of ICT

(citing Lim, 2007); and lack of appropriate hardware, software, and materials (citing Yildirim,

2007).

Many research findings stated Susan (1997) citing (Chin & Hortin, 1993; Denk, Martin &

Sarangarm, 1993; Schrum, 1995; Wang & Chan, 1995), either time or access or both issues are

the dominant critical factors that teachers describe as constraints to integrate media in classroom

instruction. Susan added that teachers do have several tasks that need time like meetings, to plan

lessons, to learn how to use the equipment or application, and time to solve the problems

encountered.

2.3.2. Positive actions for integrating instructional media in classroom teaching

Gabriella (2011), mentioned the chain of relations of perception, attitude, intention and behavior

is that perception influence attitudes; these attitudes then affect the behavioral intention to use a

technological system; such intentions influence actual technology use. Therefore Gabriella

stressed that if they have positive attitude school principals increase the amount of ICT

equipment in schools, they can indirectly support an increase of media and technology usage in

the classroom. Gabriella (2011), research finding indicates there is no relationship between

teachers' attitudes towards ICT integration in teaching and principals' supportive behaviors, but

principals in schools where large amount of ICT equipment available for teachers tend to give

stronger support for its integration into teaching. But Tadesse (2001) citing Berhane (1999),

confirmed that teachers with positive attitude towards radio instruction were shown to have a

better performance.

Susan (1997) citing Harvey & Purnell (1995), indicated that teachers

perception is of great value to other teachers, in-service coordinators, school administrators, and

educational media material developers because introduction of technology as a useful tool in

instruction takes time and actually using it and should be an on-going process, not a static event.

There are many different situations that influence teachers to change their attitude and perception

towards instructional media technology usage in classroom teaching. Teachers according to

Somekh (2008:450), are not a free agents and their use of ICT for teaching and learning depends

on the inter-locking cultural, social and organizational contexts in which they live and work.

Teachers' beliefs (such as teachers' conceptions, practical knowledge, personal knowledge and

experiential knowledge) have been conceptualized as a set of assumptions that teachers hold on

various educational process such as curriculum, schooling, students, teaching and learning, and

knowledge (Handal, 2004). For instance as Brinkerhoff (2006), mentioned when teachers are

able to test new approaches in their classrooms and witness positive student responses, it is

possible not only to influence, but actually to change beliefs and practice. Because teachers and

students according to D'Ignazio (1990c), become teams of knowledge explorers who translate

textbook knowledge into new exiting presentations, using the different technologies, this makes

learning for many students become more exiting as they are actively involved in the process.

Another point mentioned by Zhao and Cziko (2001), observing successful others can increase

teachers' perceived need for change, as well as increase their understanding of what new

practices look like. The reverse is true as Hazzan (2003), result revealed perceptions of a

negative undercurrent form veteran teachers toward such practices, discouraged novices from

integrating technology into their lessons. Because of this Shan Fu, (2013), suggested that schools

can provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to observe a variety of examples and models

that senior teachers utilize ICT in their classrooms to understand difficulties they may face when

they use them, which they can then apply with real learners.

Culture or peer pressure can have positive results regarding creating motivation on teachers

media technology integration in classroom instruction. Somekh (2008), described three schools

from three different countries that enable teachers to adopt technology in pedagogically useful

way due to the principal's vision and motivation as well as the innovation led to a "change in the

nature of teacher-teacher relationships, based on collaboration and mutual support"(pp.57-58).

Norms address everything from which values and goals are promoted, to which tools or

resources are acceptable to use said Hennessy, Ruthven, & Brindley (2005), so given this, it is

not surprising that "teachers are reluctant to adopt a technology that seems incompatible with the

norms of a subject culture"(p.16). According to Cennamo, Ross, and Ertmer (2010), in order for

"optimal" technology integration to occur, teachers need to know how to:

1. Identify which technologies are needed to support specific curricular goals

2. Specify how the tools will be used to help students meet and demonstrate those

goals

3. Enable students to use appropriate technologies in all phases of the learning

process including exploration, analysis, and production

4. Select and use appropriate technologies to address needs, solve problems, and

resolve issues related to their own professional practice and growth (p. 10).

Technologies are valuable resources, but only when used in a systematic process for developing

human competence (Earle,1992). Employing technology for any kind in the instructional process

according to D'Ignazio (1989), becomes valuable only when they are seen merely as elements in

a well-constructed learning environment. If technology is to be adopted in the classroom then

curriculum designers are to take in account teachers' beliefs and attitudes in any implementation

process (Handal,2004). Working in an appropriately designed technology-rich environment has

the potential of producing a variety of positive outcomes as Tiene & Luft (2001), stated are:

improved patterns of social interaction, changes in teaching styles, more effective teaching,

increased student and teachers motivation, and enhanced student learning. Unless teachers have

clear ideas of how media technology improve teaching learning they become less motivated to

use it and tackle the technical and scheduling problems associated with it (Means, Blando,

Olson, Middleton, Morocco, Remz & Zorfass, 1993). Because as Brown et al., (1965) cited in

Tadesse (2001), stated that utilization of instructional materials is primarily a matter of

understanding, skills and motivation on the part of teachers. It is true that teachers, who associate

knowledge or competence with control according to Susan (1997), would also be less likely to

use the unpredictable machines for instruction. According to Ertmer (2005), teachers' practices

are unlikely to change without some exposure to what teaching actually looks like when it's

being done differently. And also Hew & Brush (2007), added that lack of technology-related

management skill can inhibit technology integration. Therefore, Borko & Putnam (1995:37),

says to help teachers change their practice; we must help them to expand and elaborate their

knowledge systems.

There are many ways to help teachers change their practice besides formal training. For instance

Gahala (2001), stated individual tutoring, peer coaching, collaboration, networking, and

mentoring; time to develop new teaching strategies (Susan, 1997), have been used successfully

over extended periods to help teachers at all levels of technology implementation develop

technology applications that promote engaged learning. Susan (1997),Brody (1995), Fuller

(2000) and Gahala (2001), added that when teachers are actively using technology in their

classrooms and they encounter difficulties, they need modeling, meaningful, essential,

encouraging and appreciative immediate help and support. To make sure the immediate help for

teachers hiring an on-site technology coordinator according to Clifford (1998), is the single most

effective action a school leaders can take when we need the technology integration in classroom.

Another point Reio and Lasky(2007), suggested is that schools should create change-oriented

environments supporting experimentation and innovation, as well as include teachers in the

decision-making process.

As Gardner (1991), indicated the change starts with individual teacher, who, upon caching the

vision, is willing to take risks, to experience confrontations or encounters in rethinking teaching

and learning, and to model for and be a mentor to peers. Therefore successful technology

integration must be seen as an ongoing innovative process designed to meet

instructional/learning needs (Robey, 1992). A qualitative study conducted by Lim (2007) as cited

Details

Pages
Type of Edition: Erstausgabe
Year: 2015
ISBN (eBook): 9783954899388
ISBN (Softcover): 9783954894383
File size: 2.7 MB
Language: English
Publication date: 2015 (June)
Keywords: factors affecting instructional leaders perception educational media utilization classroom teaching

Author

Getnet Eshetu (Author)

Factors Affecting Instructional Leaders Perception towards Educational Media Utilization in Classroom Teaching

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Author

Getnet Eshetu (Author)