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Summary

This book on “Earning Animals” is written with a view to highlight the importance of some invertebrate and vertebrate species used for earning both at individual and national levels.
It aims at creating awareness among students, entrepreneurs and unemployed youth for gainful employment. The candidate species selected are some useful annelids, arthropods, unio, fish and mammals. A chapter on aquaponics – a method of cultivation of fish and plant farming devoid of soil – has also been described.
Since most of these animal species are included in the syllabi of Indian Universities and colleges, the authors believe this book will be helpful to the students to meet their curricular requirements.

Excerpt

Table Of Contents


4
EARTHWORM ­VERMICOMPOSTING
Classification
Phylum:Annelida;Class:
Oligochaeta;
Order:
Opisthopora;
Genus:
Eisenia;
Species: foetida
Introduction
Deep beneath the earth, they thrive -- pink, slimy and insatiably hungry. They are with us all
the time, rooting through our gardens, digging through our lawns and consuming everything
in their path. Aristotle called them the intestines of the -world. The ancient Chinese called
them angels of the soil. Angels or intestines, worms are a tiny but formidable force, eating
their way through organic matter and leaving a trail of rich humus in their wake.
Vermicomposting is the practice of using worms to turn the organic waste into nutrient-rich
fertilizer. In recent years efforts have been made to use the potentiality of earthworms in
recycling nutrients, waste management and development of vermicomposting systems at
commercial scale. These are also called as "Ecosystem engineers" as they increase the
numbers and types of microbes in the soil by creating conditions under which these creatures
can thrive and multiply. In India, the integration of crops and livestock and use of manure as
fertilizer were traditionally the basis of farming systems. But development of chemical
fertilizer industry during the green revolution period created opportunities for low-cost supply
of plant nutrients in inorganic forms which lead to rapid displacement of organic manures
derived from livestock excreta. The deterioration of soil fertility through loss of nutrients and
organic matter, erosion and salinity, and pollution of environment are the negative
consequences of modern agricultural practices. In India, millions of tons of livestock excreta
are produced annually. Odour and pollution problems are of concern. Currently the fertilizer
values of animal dung are not being fully utilized resulting in loss of potential nutrients
returning to agricultural systems. The potential benefits of vermicomposting of livestock
excreta, municipal solid wastes such as kitchen wastes, market wastes, garden wastes, include
control of pollution and production of a value- added product. Vermicomposting of different
livestock excreta including cattle dung; horse waste; pig waste; goat waste; sheep waste;
turkey waste and poultry droppings has been reported.
Organic wastes can be ingested by earthworms and egested as a peat-like material termed
"vermicompost". Recycling of wastes through vermicomposting reduces the problem of non-
utilization of livestock excreta. During vermicomposting, the important plant nutrients such as

5
N, P, K and Ca present in the organic waste are released and converted into forms that are
more soluble and available to plants.
Potential benefits of Vermicomposting
Vermicompost appears to be generally superior to conventionally produced compost in a
number of important ways;
· Vermicompost is superior to most composts as an inoculant in the production of
compost.
· Worms have a number of other possible uses on farms, including value as a high
quality animal feeds. Vermicompost also contains biologically active substances such
as plant growth regulators. Moreover, the worms themselves provide a protein source
for animal feed.
· Vermicomposting and vermiculture offer potential to organic farmers as sources of
supplemental income.
Vermicompost has the following advantages over chemical fertilizers.
· It restores microbial population which includes nitrogen fixers, phosphate solubilizers etc.
· Provides major and micro- nutrients to the plants. Improves soil texture and water
holding capacity of the soil.
· Provides good aeration to soil, thereby improving root growth and proliferation of
beneficial soil microorganisms.
· Decreases the use of pesticides for controlling plant pathogens. Improves structural
stability of the soil, thereby preventing soil erosion.
· Enhances the quality of grains/ fruits due to increased sugar.
· Reduces heavy metal pollution by decreasing the metal content in municipal solid
wastes (as earthworms absorb all toxic materials like heavy metals such as Hg, Pb, Zn,
Cd in their body tissue by vermicomposting).
· At the same time, the beginning of vermicomposting process is a more complicated
process than traditional composting:
· It can be quicker, but to make it so generally requires more labour.
· It requires more space because worms are surface feeders and won't operate in
material more than a meter in depth.
· It is more vulnerable to environmental pressures, such as temperature, freezing
conditions and drought.
· Vermicomposting Technology for Recycling of Organic Wastes.

6
Methods
In general, there are two methods of vermicomposting under field conditions.
1. Vermicomposting of wastes in field pits.
2. Vermicomposting of wastes on ground heaps
Vermicomposting of Wastes in Field Pits
It is preferable to go for optimum sized ground pits of 20 feet length 3 feet width 2 feet deep
for effective vermicomposting bed.Series of such beds are to be prepared at one place.
Vermicomposting of wastes on Ground Heaps
Instead of open pits, vermicomposting can be taken up in ground heaps. Dome shaped beds
(with organic wastes) are prepared and vermicomposting is taken up.Optimum size of ground
heaps may be 10 feet length x 3 feet width x 2 feet high.
Materials Required for Vermicomposting
· Kitchen wastes, MSW (Municipal solid wastes such as market wastes, hotel wastes),
garden wastes, farm wastes etc.
· Fresh cow dung.
· Wastes: dung ratio (1:1 on dry weight basis).
· Earthworm: 1000-1200 adult worms (about 1 kg per quintal of waste material).
· Water: 3-5 liters in every week per heap or pit.
Vermicomopost Preparation under Tree shade by Pit and Heap Methods
Open permanent pits of 10 feet length 3 feet width 2 feet deep were constructed under the tree
shade, which was about 2 feet above ground to avoid entry of rainwater into the pits. Brick
walls were constructed above the pit floor and perforated into 10 cm diameter 5-6 holes in the
pit wall for aeration. The holes in the wall were blocked with nylon screen (100 mesh) so that
earthworms may not escape from the pits. Partially decomposed dung (dung about 2 month
old) was spread on the bottom of the pits to a thickness of about 3-4cm. This was followed by
addition of layer of litter/ residue and dung in the ratio of 1:1 (w/w). A second layer of dung
was then applied followed by another layer of litter/crop residue in the same ratio up to a
height of 2 feet. Two species of epigeic earthworms viz., Eisenia foetida and Perionyx
excavatus were inoculated in the pit. Moisture content was maintained at 60-70% throughout
the decomposition period. Jute bags (gunny bags) were spread uniformly on the surface of the
materials to facilitate maintenance of suitable moisture regime and temperature conditions.

7
Watering by sprinkler was often done. The materials were allowed to decompose for 15-20
days to stabilize the temperature to reach the mesophilic stage, the process has to pass the
thermophilic stage, which comes in about 3 weeks. Earthworms were inoculated in the pit or
heap with 10 adult earthworms per kg of waste material and a total of 500 worms were added
to each pit or heap. The materials were allowed to decompose for 110 days. The forest litter
was decomposed much earlier (75 to 85 days) than farm residue (110-115 days). In the heap
method the waste materials and partially decomposed dung (1:1 w/w) are made in heaps of
dimension; 10 feet length x 3 feet width x 2 feet high and during inoculation channels are
made by hand and earthworm @ 1 kg per quintal of waste are inoculated and then watering is
done by sprinkler method. Jute cloth pieces are used as covering material.
Suitable species for vermicomposting
There are different species of earthworms viz. Eisenia foetida (Red earthworm), Eudrilus
eugeniae (night crawler), Perionyx excavatus etc.
Red earthworm is preferred because of its high multiplication rate and thereby converts the
organic matter into vermicompost within 45-50 days. Since it is a surface feeder it converts
organic materials into vermicompost from top.
Desirable attributes of worms suitable for vermicomposting
1. Worm should exhibit high biomass consumption together with a high efficiency of
conversion of ingested biomass to body proteins, a physiological trait required for
achieving high growth rate.
2. Worm should have wider range of tolerance to environmental factors including
adaptation to feed on a variety of organic residues.
3. Worm should produce large numbers of cocoons with short hatching time enabling
rapid population growth and, linked to this rapid growth, faster composting of organic
residues.
4. Life cycle of the worm should be such that mature/ adult phase is quickly reached.
5. Using a mixture of species is likely to be more useful than use of single species.
6. Worm should be disease resistant.
Vermicomposting process:It is an aerobic, bio-oxidation, non-thermophilic process of
organic waste decomposition that depends upon earthworms to fragment, mix and promote
microbial activity.

8
The basic requirements during the process of vermicomposting are
· Suitable bedding
· Food source
· Adequate moisture
· Adequate aeration
· Suitable temperature
· Suitable pH
Bedding:Bedding is any material that provides a relatively stable habitat to worms. For good
vermicomposting, this habitat should satisfy the following criteria:
· High absorbency: As worms breathe through skin, the bedding must be able to absorb
and retain adequate water
· Good bulking potential: The bulking potential of the material should be such that
worms get oxygen properly.
· Low nitrogen content (high Carbon: Nitrogen ratio): Although worms consume their
bedding as it breaks down, it is very important that this be a slow process. High
protein/nitrogen levels can result in rapid degradation and associated heating may be
fatal to worms.
Food Source: Regular input of feed materials for the earthworms is most essential step in the
vermicomposting process. Earthworms can use a wide variety of organic materials as food but
do exhibit food preferences. In adverse conditions, earthworms can extract sufficient
nourishment from soil to survive. However earthworms feed mainly on dead and decaying
organic waste and on free living soil microflora and fauna. Under ideal conditions, worms can
consume amount of food higher than their body weights, the general rule-of-thumb is
consumption of food weighing half of their body weight per day. Live stock excreta, viz., goat
manure, cattle dung or pig manure are the most commonly used worm feed stock as these
materials have higher nitrogen content. When the material with higher carbon content is used
with C: N ratio exceeding 40: 1, it is advisable to add nitrogen supplements to ensure
effective decomposition. The food should be added only as a limited layer as an excess of the
waste many generate heat. From the waste ingested by the worms, 5-10% are being
assimilated in their body and the rest are being excreted in the form of vermicast.

9
Moisture: Perhaps the most important requirement of earthworms is adequate moisture. They
require moisture in the range of 60-70%. The feed stock should not be too wet otherwise it
may create anaerobic conditions which may be fatal to earthworms.
Aeration: Factors such as high levels of fatty/oily substances in the feed stock or or excessive
moisture combined with poor aeration may render anaerobic conditions in vermicomposting
system. Worms suffer severe mortality partly because they are deprived of oxygen and partly
because of toxic substances (e.g. ammonia) produced under such conditions. This is one of
the main reasons for not including meat or other fatty/oily wastes in worm feed stock unless
they have been pre-composted to break down the oils and fats.
Temperature: The activity, metabolism, growth, respiration and reproduction of earthworms
are greatly influenced by temperature. Most earthworm species used in vermicomposting
require moderate temperatures from 10 ­ 35
o
C. While tolerances and preferences vary from
species to species. Earthworms can tolerate cold and moist conditions far better than hot and
dry conditions. For Eisenia foetida temperatures above 10
o
C (minimum) and preferably 15
o
C
are maintained for maximizing vermicomposting efficiency and above 15
o
C (minimum) and
preferably 20
o
C for vermiculture. Higher temperatures (> 35
o
C) may result in high mortality.
Worms will redistribute themselves within piles, beds or windrows such that they get
favorable temperatures in the bed.
pH: Worms can survive in a pH range of 5 to 9, but a range of 7.5 to 8.0 is considered to be
the optimum. In general, the pH of worm beds tends to drop over time due to the
fragmentation of organic matter under series of chemical reactions. Thus, if the food sources
are alkaline, the effect is a moderating one, tending to neutral or slightly acidic, and if acidic
(e.g., coffee grounds, peat moss); pH of the beds can drop well below 7. In such acidic
conditions, pests like mites may become abundant. The pH can be adjusted upwards by
adding calcium carbonate.
Other Important Parameters: There are a number of other parameters of importance to
vermicomposting:
Pre-composting of organic waste: Scientists reported the death of Eisenia foetida after 2
weeks in the fresh cattle solids although all other growth parameters such as moisture content,
pH, electrical conductivity, C: N ratio, NH
4
and NO
3
- contents were suitable for the growth of

10
the earthworms.They attributed the deaths of earthworms to the anaerobic conditions which
developed after 2 weeks in fresh cattle solids. It is established that pre-composting of organic
waste is very essential to avoid the mortality of worms.
Salt content: Worms are very sensitive to salts, preferring salt contents less than 0.5% in
feed.
Urine content: According to Gaddie and Douglas if the manure is from animals raised or fed
off in concrete lots, it will contain excessive urine because the urine cannot drain off into the
ground. This manure should be leached before use to remove the urine. Excessive urine will
build up toxic gases like ammonia in the bedding.
Other toxic components: Different feeds can contain a wide variety of potentially toxic
components.
· Detergent cleansers industrial chemicals, pesticides: These can often be found in feeds
such as sewage or septic sludge, paper-mill sludge, or some food processing wastes.
· Tannins: Some trees, such as cedar and fir, have high levels of these naturally
occurring substances. They can harm worms and even drive them away from the beds.
It has been pointed out that pre-composting of wastes can reduce or even eliminate
most of these threats. However, pre-composting also reduces the nutrient value of the
feed.
Pests and Diseases: Moles prey on earthworms and hence are often a problem when using
windrows or other open-air vermicomposting systems. Damage due to rats and moles can be
prevented by putting some form of barrier, such as wire mesh, paving, or a good layer of clay,
under the windrow. Putting some type of windrow cover (e.g., old gunny bags) over the
material will eliminate damage to worms by birds, apart from improving moisture retention
and excessive leaching likely during high rainfall events. Centipedes eat compost worms and
their cocoons. Fortunately, they do not seem to multiply to a great extent within worm beds or
windrows. If they do become a problem, one method suggested for reducing their numbers is
to heavily wet (but not quite flood) the worm beds. The water forces centipedes and other
insect pests (but not the worms) to the surface, where they can be destroyed by means of a
hand-held propane torch. Ants are more of a problem because they consume the feed meant
for the worms. This problem can be checked by avoiding sweet feeds in the worm beds and
maintaining a pH of 7 or slightly higher. White and brown mites compete with worms for

11
food and can thus have some economic impact, but red mites are parasitic on earthworms.
They suck blood or body fluid from worms and they can also suck fluid from cocoons. The
best prevention for red mites is to make sure that the pH of the bedding is neutral or slightly
alkaline. This can be done by keeping the moisture levels below 85% and through the
addition of calcium carbonate, as required.
Sour crop or protein poisoning happens when worms are overfed leading to protein build up
in the bedding and production of toxic acids and gases due to protein decay. The better option
is to maintain proper feed quality and micro environmental conditions which rule out any
possibility of sour crop.
Nutrients in Vermicompost
It has been estimated that earthworms add 230 kg N/ ha/ year in grasslands and 165 kg
N/ha/year in woodland sites. Earthworms increase the nitrate production by stimulating
bacterial activity and through their own decomposition. There are reports that concentrations
of exchangeable cations such as Ca, Mg, Na, K, available P and Mo in the worm casts are
higher than those in the surrounding soil. Vermicompost can not be described as being
nutritionally superior to other organic manures. Instead, it is a unique way of manure
production.
Chemical composition of worm cast:
Organic carbon%
----
9.15 to 17.88
Total Nitrogen %
----
0.5 to 0.9
Phosphorus %
----
0.1 to 0.26
Potassium %
----
0.15 to 0.256
Sodium %
----
0.055 to 0.3
Calcium & magnesium (Meq/100 g) ----
22.67 to 47.6
Copper (mg L-1)
----
2.0 to 9.5
Iron (mg L-1)
----
2.0 to 9.3
Zinc (mg L-1)
----
5.7 to 9.3
Sulphur (mg L-1)
----
128.0 to 548.0

12
As a processing system, the vermicomposting of organic waste is very simple. Worms ingest
the waste material ­ break it up in their rudimentary gizzards ­ consume the
digestible/putrefiable portion, and then excrete a stable, humus-like material that can be
immediately marketed and has a variety of documented benefits to the consumer.
Vermitechnology can be a promising technique that has shown its potential in certain
challenging areas like augmentation of food production, waste recycling, management of
solid wastes etc. There is no doubt that in India, where on side pollution is increasing due to
accumulation of organic wastes and on the other side there is shortage of organic manure,
which could increase the fertility and productivity of the land and produce nutritive and safe
food. So the scope for vermicomposting is enormous
.

13
HONEY BEE ­ APICULTURE
Classification
Phylum: Arthropoda; Class: Insecta; Order: Hymenoptera; Family: Apidae; Genus: Apis;
Species: mellifera
Introduction
Maintenance of honey bee colonies commonly in hives is known as apiculture. A bee keeper
known as apiarist, keeps bees in order to collect honey and other products of the hive which
includes bee-wax, propolis, pollen,royal jelly to pollinate crops and to produce beesfor sale
to other bee keepers. The location where bees are kept is called an apiry or bee-yard.
The term Apiculture is derived from the generic name of western honey bee or European
honey bee (Apis mellifera). The genus Apis is a Latin word for "bee"and mellifera from Latin
melli-"honey" and ferre "to bear", hence, the scientific name means "honey-bearing bee".
This name was recoined as Apis mellifica (honey-making bee) by Carlous Linnaeus, after
realizing the difference as bees do not bear honey. Bee keeping is an agro based enterprise,
which farmers can take up for additional income generation.
Advantages of bee keeping as an income generation activity
· Bee keeping requires less time, money and infrastructure investments
· Honey and bee wax can be produced from an area of little agricultural value
· The Honey bee does not compete for resources with any other agricultural enterprise.
· Bee keeping has positive ecological consequences. Bees play an important role in the
pollination of many flowering plants, thus increasing the yield of certain crops such as
sunflower and various fruits.

14
· Honey is a delicious and highly nutritious food. By the traditional method of honey
hunting many wild colonies of bees are destroyed. This can be prevented by raising
bees in boxes and producing honey at home.
· Bee keeping can be initiated by individuals or groups
· The market potential for honey and wax is high
Products of Apiculture
Honey
Honey is used in cooking, baking, to spread on bread and as an additive to various beverages,
such as Tea. Honey is the main ingredient in the alcohol beverage, which is known as Honey
Wine OR Honey Beer. It acts as an antimicrobial agent with potential for treating a variety of
ailments, as antibacterial with the properties of lowering water activity by causing
osmosis,and for chelation of free ions. Honey appears to be effective in killing drug-resistant
biofilms which are implicated in chronic rhino sinusitis. Topical honey has been used
successfully in a comprehensive treatment of diabetic ulcers when the patient cannot use
topical antibiotics. Honey has also been used for centuries as a treatment for sore throats and
coughs as an effective soothing agent. Honey is used in the preparation of Face pack and in
other cosmetics.
Chemical Composition of Honey
Honey is rich in Carbohydrates and different types of sugars like Fructose, Glucose and
Sucrose. It containsVitamins of B-series (Riboflavin B2, Niacin B3, Pantothenic acid B5),
B6, Folate B9 and Vitamin C and also contains different essential metal ions such as Calcium,
Iron, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium and Zinc. Doesn't contain Fat but contains proteins and
fibers. 100 ml of honey generates about 304 kcal of energy.
Synthesis of Honey
Honey is synthesized from nectar by honey bees. The bees transform nectar by a process
known as Regurgitation and store in hives. The nectar is processed by digestive enzymes in
the honey stomach of bees to ingest and regurgitate until it is partially digested. The honey is
made concentrated to evaporate water by fanning of bees. Evaporation of water prevents
fermentation and increases sugar concentration.

15
Other products of Apiculture
Bee wax
Formed by worker bees from 4-7 abdominal segments. It is a tough wax formed from a
mixture of several compounds e.g. hydrocarbons, mono-di-tri-esters and free alcohol. Used
for polishing leather and wooden materials. Used as a mordant for softening wax. Used in
skin care products. Used as Bone wax in surgery. Used in decorative items.
Propolis
A resinous mixture, collected from tree buds and sap flowers. Used as sealant of open spaces
of the hive. Showing antifungal and antibacterial activities. Used as an anticancer agent.
Royal Jelly
A honey bee secretion, used in nutrition of larvae.Marketed for medicinal use, such as- In
homeopathic medicine.In Grave's disease for its immuno-modulatory activity. Anti-
inflammatory, wound healing. Anti-cholesterol activity.Prevents vascularization of tumor.
Pollen
It is collected in the pollen basket and carry it to hive. Used as a protein source during brood
rearing. An anti-allergic and anti-tumor agent. Provides energy and improves immunity.
Lowers stress level.
Geographical Distribution
Currently, there are 28 subspecies of honey bees which are distributed in Africa, Europe, Asia
and America. The honey bee originated in Africa and subsequently spread to Europe in two
ancient migrations. All species are cross fertile through reproductive adaptations. The
adaptations include the behavior of the bees synchronized with environmental conditions in
relation to bloom period of local flora.
Bee colonies consist of 3 categories as:
· A queen bee, the only breeding female in a colony.
· Large number of female worker bees (30-50,000 numbers).
· Large number of male drones (thousands) in a colony.

16
(i)
Queen
Only sexually mature female in the hive and all the female workers and male drones are her
offspring. Life span of 3-4 years. Capable of laying eggs ranging from 1500-3000/day.
Develop from a normal worker bee in radical growth and metamorphosis. Influences the
colony by discharging a variety of pheromones (Queen substances), which suppresses the
development of ovaries of workers
(ii)
Drones
The largest bee next to queen.Male bees of colony without ovipositors and stingers.Do not
forage for nectar and pollen. Solely to fertilize the queen.Role in thermo regulation of the
hive. Die immediately after mating. Contain haploid set of chromosomes (haploidy). These
are descendants of the queen.
(iii)
Workers
All females except the queen. Short life span of about 6 weeks. They perform different works
like:
· Cell cleaning
· Feeding older and Young larvae
· Collecting nectar and pollen
· Wax making
· Cell building
· Guards of the hive

17
Life Cycle of Honey Bee
The queen begins egg laying in mid to late winter, so as to prepare for spring which is
triggered by longer day length. The queen usually stays inside the hive except for nuptial
flight. Queen collects sperm to fertilize up to 1000 eggs. Egg hatches to a small larva which is
fed by nurse (worker) bees. After a week the larva is sealed up in its cell and pupate. After a
week emerge as an adult bee. On day 16-20, a worker receives nectar and pollen from old
workers and stores it. After 20
th
day a worker leaves the hive and spends remainder of its life
as a forager. The population of a healthy hive contains about 40000-80000 bees. Both
workers and queen during their larval stage (first 3 days) are fed with royal jelly. Then
workers are switched to a diet of pollen nectar.
Only the queen continue to receive royal jelly for quick development of larva and pupal
stages. Queen is reared in a special chamber of the hive till its emergence. Aged queen bee
run for stored sperm, unable to fertilize the eggs due to damaged legs and antenna or else her
pheromones have damaged, and can't control all the bees' in the hive. Under such
circumstances, the bees will produce one or more queen cells by modifying existing worker
cells that contain a normal female egg.
There are two behaviors:
Supersedure queen replacement within one hive without surviving and swarm cell
production.The division of the hive into two colonies by surviving.

18
Supersuder
A highly valued behavioral trait. The hive supersedes the old queen and creates a new queen.
The old one fades away or is killed when the new queen emerges. During superseding, the
bees produced just one or two queen cells, particularly in the centre of the brood cab. In
swarming, a great many queen cells are created, adozen or more and those are located around
the edges of a brood cab.
Swarming
The old queen leaves the hive with the hatching of the first queen cell. When she leaves, she
is accompanied by a large noumber of bees (young which are wax secretors who can form the
new hive secreting wax from the abdominal segments). Sometimes the swarm is accompanied
by virgin queens. Often, a number of virgin queens accompanies the swarm and the old queen
is replaced as soon as a daughter queen is mated and laying.
Factors affecting swarming
· Lack of space in the hive (congested nature of the hive).
· Age of the queen (Older queens have swarming pre-disposition).
· Accidental death of the Queen bee.
Honey bee Pheromones
Honey bee's secret special pheromones for almost all behaviors. These pheromones are
essential formating, alarm, defense, orientation, and colony reorganization, food production
and integration of colony activities.

19
Honey harvesting
Natural
Collecting honey from wild bee colonies is one of the most ancient human activities and is
still practiced in different societies of Africa, Asia, Australia and America. It is as old as
13,000 BC. Honey harvesting from wild hives is done by smoke or by breaking trees or rocks
carrying the colony.
Honey bee domestication
Humans began to domesticate wild bees in artificial hives made of logs, wooden boxes,
pottery vessels and wooden straw baskets. Honey bees were kept from antiquity in Egypt. In
prehistoric Greece, there existed a system of high status apiculture as evidenced from
smoking pots, honey extractors and others. Similarly, archaeological findings relating to
beekeeping have been discovered in Jordan valley (Israel), Greece, Rome and China.
Super frame
Smoking the hive
A capped honey
Uncapping with fork
Extraction Filtration
Pouring in pots
Packaging

20
Modern Bee Keeping
In modern times, the Longstroth hive is commonly used. It is a top-open hive with movable
frames. These are all square or rectangular structure with wooden frames. It consists of a
wooden groove box, floor, crown board and roof. These hives are commonly constructed of
cedar, pine or cypress wood. But recently it is replaced by moulded dense polystyrene.
Regional variation of hive evolved to reflect climate, floral productivity and the reproductive
characteristics of various sub-species of native honey bee in each region.
Honey production in India and export
About 10,000 tons of forest honey is produced annually. Apiary honey produced under the
KVI sector is estimated to be a little less than 10,000 tons in 1990-91. Over 95 per cent of this
was from the A. cerana colonies, the rest being from the European bee colonies. Forest honey,
mostly from rock bee hives, is usually collected by tribals in forests and is procured by forest
or tribal corporations as a minor forest produce. Quite a large quantity is also collected by
groups or individuals on their own. Forest honey is usually thin, contains large quantity of
pollen, bee juices and parts, wax and soil particles. The honey collector gets between Rs. 10
and Rs. 25 per kilogram of the forest honey. Forest honeys are mostly multifloral. Much of
the forest honey is sold to the pharmaceutical, confectionery and food industries, where it is
processed and used in different formulations. Apiary honey is usually processed at the
producers level. This consists mainly of heating the honey and filtering. A few bee keepers or

21
honey producers co-operative societies have better processing facilities that involve killing of
honey fermenting yeasts. About 50 per cent of the apiary honey under the KVI sector is
graded and marketed under AGMARK specifications. In 1985 the consumption of honey was
estimated to be about 8.4 g per capita, while in other countries this was 200 g. Presently this
would be about 2.5 g. Honey has so far been consumed mainly as a medicine and for religious
purposes. A small quantity has been used in kitchen as an ingredient of pickles, jams and
preservatives. With the increasing production in recent years, there is an increasing trend to
use honey in food. This is obviously the case with the affluent segments of the population.
Forest honey is used in pharmaceutical, food, confectionery, bakery and cosmetic industries.
Sources at the beekeepers co-operative society claim that a beekeeper who invests Rs. 1 lakh
for raising colonies (each colony consists of 10,000 to 25,000 worker bees, a queen bee and a
few drones) and towards the cost of providing artificial feeding, can realise the entire amount,
in addition to profit, within a year. The society has registered moderate sales ranging from Rs
60 lakh to Rs 65 lakh in the past three years. The society finds marketing a Herculean task
and has pitched its hopes on the government. A lot depends on the government's move as
about 10,000 persons are either directly or indirectly involved in the industry. The
government has to set up a research institute to find a cure for the virus that may hit the bee
colonies. Apart from beekeeping and marketing, money could be promoted under a self-
employment scheme among rural youth in a big way to improve the rural economy, especially
when national resources are available in Kanyakumari district of India.

22
In India bee keeping has been mainly forest based. Several natural plant species provide
nectar and pollen to honey bees. Thus, the raw material for production of honey is available
free from nature. Bee hives neither demand additional land space nor do they compete with
agriculture or animal husbandry for any input. The bee keeper needs only to spare a few hours
in a week to look after his bee colonies. Bee keeping is therefore ideally suited to him as a
part-time occupation. Bee keeping constitutes a resource of sustainable income generation to
the rural and tribal farmers. It provides them valuable nutrition in the form of honey, protein
rich pollen and brood. Bee products also constitute important ingredients of folk and
traditional medicine.

23
SILK WORM ­ SERI CULTURE
Classification
Phylum: Arthropoda; Sub-phylum: Mandibulata; Class: Insecta; Order: Lepidoptera;
Genus: Bombyx; Species: mori
Introduction
The silkworm, Bombyx mori is exploited both as a powerful biological model system and also
as a tool to convert leaf protein into silk. Sericulture is the breeding and management of silk
worms for the commercial production of silk. It encompasses all the activities involved in
raising the mulberry plantation, rearing silk worms on the mulberry leaves for obtaining
cocoons, reeling the silk thread and twisting it to make it suitable for weaving. It is an
underexploited but important sector of the source of income for the beneficiaries with
employment generation potential. Further, it also provides employment and income from its
ancillary sectors like (i) grainages, chawki rearing centres, seed farms and mulberry nurseries
which provide backward linkages and (ii) dyeing, weaving, garment making and marketing.
Each such sector can fetch a good return with employment, and human resource management
and its utilization. The race of silk worm by which only one crop is taken in one year is called
uni-voltine, producing two crops in a year is called bi-voltine and producing more than two
crops in a year is called multi-voltine.
History
Historical evidence shows that silk was discovered in China and then this industry spread
from there to other parts of the world. The Chinese maintained the secrecy of the beautiful
and value added material that they were producing, from the rest of the world for more than
30 centuries. Travellers were searched thoroughly at border crossings and anyone caught
trying to smuggle eggs, cocoons or silkworms out of the country were summarily executed.
Demand for this exotic fabric eventually created the lucrative trade route now known as the
`SilkRoad' which was mentioned as early as 300 BC in the days of the Han Dynasty, taking
silk westward and bringing gold, silver and wools to the East.
Sericulture in India
India, with a total production of about 15,610 MT that accounts for about 15.13% of global
mulberry raw silk production, ranks second among the mulberry silk producing countries of
the world next to China (Lakshmi et al., 2011). By the year 2025, domestic demand is

24
expected to increase to 45,000 MT/yr. Therefore, silk
production has tremendous growth potential in India, which
could provide additional employment opportunities for up to
4 million rural families. Sericulture is cultivated in
Karnataka, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Jammu Kashmir, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharastra,
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Odisha, and in other states.
Germany is the largest consumer of Indian silk. The muga
silk has restricted distribution and is found only in the NE
parts of India. Assam is the only state in the country
producing all the four varieties of silk. The number of
sericulture villages in NE region is about 38,000 and approximately 1.9 lakh families are
engaged in this industry in Assam. Similarly, the number of families adopting sericulture had
increased to 8,000 with over 10,000 acres of mulberry plantations in Maharashtra in 2008.
Sericulture in Odisha
About 15,000 traditional families involving one lakh people actively practise sericulture in
Odisha. It provides indirect employment to equal number of reelers, spinners and weavers.
Out of the 4 types of silks viz. Mulberry, Tasar, Eri and Muga cultivated In India, three types
namely Mulberry, Tasar and Eri culture is practiced in Odisha. At present with Govt. support
tribals and few non-tribals under the BPL category are practicing sericulture and about 50,000
members mostly from SC/ST communities are enrolled under Cooperative fold to earn their
livelihood through sericulture. Odisha has rich traditional heritage of tasar culture. The State
has the demand of 500MT of raw silk annually for handloom sector with the 10,000 silk
handlooms. Present production in the State is about 85 MT. Thus the demand supply gap is
wide and emphasis is being given to strengthen
the sector through ongoing State Plan Scheme,
programme of Central Silk Board etc. Micro
project for development of bivoltine mulberry
sericulture in Gajapati district in Odisha is
under implementation to boost quality bivoltine
silk production inside the State of Odisha.
Sericulture activities in Odisha

25
Life cycle of Silk worm
The silk worm is the larva or the caterpillar of the moth Bombyx mori (popularly called as silk
moth). The silk worm has four remarkably different developmental stages: egg, larva, pupa,
and moth. The total life history of the moth from egg to adult takes about 50 days.
The different stages are as follows:
1. Egg- 10 days
2. Larva (4 Stages) - 30 days
3. Pupa (Cocoon) - 10 days
4. Adult- 2 to 3 days
Adult: The adult silk moth is a creamy white moth that has a flat body and a wing expanse of
about 5 cms. It takes no food and seldom attempts to fly. It lives for only 2 to 3 days. After
mating, the female moth lays 300-500 eggs on leaves of the mulberry tree.
Eggs: The eggs are round and yellowish-white, and they become grey as hatching time
approaches. Two types of eggs are generally found, i.e. diapause type and non-diapause type.
The diapause type of eggs are laid by the silk worm inhabiting in temperate regions, whereas
silk worms belonging to subtropical regions like India lay non-diapause type of eggs. During
diapause all the vital activities of the eggs ceases.
Larvae:The newly hatched larva is about 3 mm long and black in colour. The larvae grow in
size and shed their skin (moult) four times. Each growing stage of the caterpillar consumes lot
of mulberry leaves. The 5
th
instar larvae are very important because the larvae have enough
nutrients for growth, development and silk production. The last stage full grown larva is about
7 cm long. It has a hump behind the head and a spine-like horn at the tail end. When full
grown, the mature larva stops feeding, climbs on a twig and spins a cocoon.
The Cocoon:The cocoon is formed from the secretion of two large silk glands (actually the
salivary glands), which extend along the inside of the body and open through a common duct
on the lower lip of the mouthparts. The larva moves the head from side to side very rapidly
(about 65 times per minute) throwing out the secretion of the silk glands in the form of a
thread. The secretion is a clear viscous fluid, which on exposure to the air gets hardened into
the fine silk fibre. The cocoons from which moths have emerged are called pierced cocoons.
The cocoon consists of only one thread, with a length that can exceed a kilometer. The adult

26
leaves the cocoon by breaking the thread, which is prevented by killing the pupa through heat
stifling. The pupa is also killed and dehydrated cocoons are preserved until reeling to draw the
thread.
Pupa:The full grown larva pupates inside the cocoon.After about 10 days, it transforms into a
winged adult. The adult moth makes an opening in the cocoon and escapes through it.
Stages of life history of silk worm
Rearing of silk worms:Selected healthy silk moths are allowed to mate for 4 hours. Female
moth is then kept in a dark plastic bed, which can lay about 400 eggs in 24 hours. The eggs
are hatched in an incubator. The hatched larvae are kept in trays inside a rearing house at a
temperature of about 20°C-25°C. These are first fed on chopped mulberry leaves and after 4-5
days fresh leaves are provided. As the larvae grow, they are transferred to fresh leaves on
clean trays, when fully grown they spin cocoons.
Reeling silk:The cocoons are cooked in hot water and the silk fibre is unwound from the
cocoons. This process is called reeling. The silk consists of two proteins i.e the inner core is
fibroin and an outer cover of sericin. There are four following steps for the completion of the
process of reeling:
· The cocoons are first treated by steam or dry heat to kill the insect inside. This is
necessary to prevent the destruction of the continuous fibre by the emergence of the
moth.
· The cocoons are then soaked in hot water (95° -97°C) for 10-15 minutes to soften the
gum that binds the silk threads together. This process is called as cooking.
· The "cooked" cocoons are kept in hot water and the loose ends of the thread are
caught by hand.
· Threads from several cocoons are wound together on wheels ("charakhas") to form the
reels of raw silk.

27
Only about one-half of the silk of each cocoon is reelable, the remainder is used as a silk
waste and formed into spun silk. Raw silk thus obtained is processed through several
treatments to give it the final shape.
Twisting:Prior to weaving, the raw silk is boiled in water to remove remaining gum, dyed
and bleached, and then woven into the garment­usually on handloom. In some cases the
woven cloth may be dyed and bleached.
Cocoon rearing
Cocoon harvesting
Species of Silk worms: There are four different species of moths which yield different types
of silk:
Mulberry Silk is the most common among them contributing nearly about 95% of world's
silk production. It is produced from the cocoons of the moth, Bombyx mori. Within the
species there are many varieties,mainly differentiated according to the number of generations
produced annually under natural conditions. Besides, hybrids of various kinds have also been
developed.
Erisilk worm has two varieties ­ a wild one and a domesticated one bred on castor leaves.
The filament is neither continuous nor uniform. Hence the moths are allowed to emerge
before commencing reeling. A white or bright red silk is produced.
Tasar silk worms are wild. The Indian Tasar worm feeds on trees of Terminalia species and
other minor host plants, while the Japanese and Chinese worms feed on oak and other allied
species.
Muga silk worm is found only in Assam. It feeds on two local species of shrubs ­ Machilus
bombycina and Litsae polyantha, producing a strong, golden yellow thread.

28
Properties of silk
1. It is bright, soft and strong.
2. It is made of proteins.
3. It is hard wearing.
4. It can be dyed into different colours.
Mulberry cultivation
Mulberry leaves play a very significant role in producing good quality cocoons (Legay 1958).
It was observed that better growth and development of silk worm larvae as well as good
quality cocoons can be obtained when silk worms fed on nutritionally enriched leaves (Seki
and Oshikare 1959). Silk worm obtains 72-86% of their amino acids from mulberry leaves
and more than 60% of the absorbed amino acids are used for silk production (Lu and Jiary,
1988). In addition, fecundity of silk worms is also related to larval feeding regime directly
and larger pupa produce good quality adults for reproduction which lead to more eggs with
high hatchability (Legay, 1958).
The methods of mulberry leaf production vary in different parts of the world depending upon
the climatic conditions and soil types. Mulberry is raised as bushes in tropical conditions. The
conscious cultivation of mulberry plants for harvesting leaves to be used as food for silk
worms is referred to as moriculture.
Mulberry plantation
Climate:The climatic conditions in India are favourable for growth of mulberry and rearing
of silk worms throughout the year. For the best mulberry growth, 24 to 26°C temperature and
rainfall range of 635 -2500 mm are found suitable.
Varieties:In the past, local varieties of Morus indica were grown in the different states like
West Bengal, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu for their hardy nature, ability to withstand climatic
conditions and quick growing nature. However, their yield was poor. So high yielding

29
varieties have been evolved such as kosen, S 162, S 519, S 523, S 799, C 776, Kanva 2 (M5),
S 30 and S 54.
Mysore local and M5 are the two most common varieties used. Mysore local can grow
quickly and also withstand climatic variations. M5 is a superior hybrid variety giving higher
yield. Further, the leaves are of a better quality with more protein content and give a higher
leaf-cocoon ratio. However, it needs supplemental irrigation and fertilizer application.
Preparation of Land and manuring:The field is ploughed deep initially using heavy mould
board plough, up to a depth of 12 to 15 in order to loosen the soil. Weeds and gravels are
removed. A basal dose of organic manure like compost or farm yard manure is applied @ 10
tonnes per hectare for rainfed crop and 20 tonnes per hectare for irrigated crop. The manure is
incorporated by repeated ploughings. This enables easy establishment of the crop. In addition
to the organic manure, the inorganic manures or fertilizers used in mulberry cultivation are
nitrogen, phosphate and potash in suitable doses as per the requirement of the soil.
Propagation:Mulberry is propagated either through seeds or vegetatively. Vegetative
propagation is the most common method of propagation because of various advantages like
maintenance of particular characters of the plant. Propagation through seeds has got certain
limitations and is used only for breeding new varieties. The exotic varieties which do not
come up by cuttings are propagated through root grafts. Many of the indigenous varieties are
propagated through cuttings.
Cutting:Cuttings of 7 to 10 cm usually of pencil thickness with three or four active buds are
prepared out of the central portion of the clone with the slanting cut. These cuttings are
planted in the field directly or in nursery beds. When kept in nursery, all precautions should
be observed for not allowing the cuttings to dry up. After 2 to 3 months, sprouted cuttings are
transplanted into the field depending upon the type of plantation to be raised.
Grafting:Grafting consists of inserting a small branchof a plant into a rooted plant of the
same or allied species in such a way to bring about an organic union between the two and
finally make them grow as one. The branch that is inserted is known as scion and the plant to
which the scion is inserted is called as stock. The scion grows with the help of nourishment
supplied by the stock. The stock is generally of an indigenous variety which is well
acclimatized to the local conditions. Grafting thus facilitates the propagation of a

30
varietywhich has the desirable qualities and which cannot be propagated by other means.
Exotic mulberry varieties are propagated by this method using root of the local mulberry on
stock and shoot of the exotic variety as scion.
Irrigation: The leaf production of mulberry plant is not limited in those areas where there is a
uniform rainfall of 100 to 150 mm per month throughout the year. Such conditions does not
exist in major sericultural areas, hence supplemental irrigation is essential for optimum leaf
yield. Frequency of irrigation varies depending on the growth stages of plant, soil types and
other agro-climatic conditions. For example, the frequency varies from once in 8 to 10 days
for sandy soils and once in 15 days for clayey soil. More frequent irrigations are necessary for
young plants than older ones. The most critical period is during summer when maximum
irrigation viz. 10 to 12 days is required.
Pruning:Pruning is the methodical removal of certain branches of a mulberry plant with the
object of giving the tree a convenient shape and size, to increase the leaf yield to improve its
feeding value. Pruning also helps to divert the energies of the plant for optimum production of
foliage. During winter from December to end of February, the mulberry plants remain under
dormant conditions. Therefore, mulberry plants are pruned in different ways according to the
climate, geographical conditions and forms of the silk worm rearing.
Harvesting of Leaves:
The leaves are fed as a whole or as bits and in some cases the entire
shoot or branch is used for feeding the worms. Further more, over the past several years the
method of harvest must have become modified to suit the availability of labour and intensity
of rearing practices. It is recommended to harvest the leaves in the morning hours to avoid
active photosynthesis and transpiration during daytime. There are three methods of harvesting
the mulberry leaves, namely leaf picking, branch cutting and whole shoot harvest. Usually
one or two harvests are done per day and worms are fed four or five times.
Storage and Preservation:A certain time must necessarily lapse during the transport of
leaves and after. During this period the leaves are stored properly below 20°C and over 90%
relative humidity. The major problem during storage is water loss and breakdown of
carbohydrate and protein deterioration in nutritive value. If proper storage at 20°C with 90%
relative humidity is achieved, these losses could be prevented.

31
Diseases of Silk worm
The disease of silk worm may be divided into two classes. Those caused by certain easily
recognized animal and plant parasites, not bacteria as " parasitic diseases" and those of more
indefinite nature in which bacteria may or may not play a part as "rot disease". Under the
parasitic diseases Pebrine, muscardine and fly pest are very important. (1) Pebrine caused by
Nosema bombycis (2). Muscardine caused by Beauveria bassiana and (3) Fly pest caused by
Tricolyga bombycis. Under rot diseases Flacherie and Grasserie could be the prominent. The
parasitic diseases are reasonably well understood and their diagnosis and control are
consequently possible. The rot diseases, on the other hand, are some what obscure in their
origin and consequently imperfectly understood and difficult to control.
Application of Phytochemical/phytohormone in sericulture
Considering the great bio-diversity of Indian flora, phytochemical research is anticipated to
provide potent radiomodifiers and anticancer agents as well as formulations for eco-friendly
agriculture and sericulture. A new polysaccharide obtained from the Indian medicinal plant,
Tinospora cordifolia has been found to possess impressive immunomodulatory and
radioprotective properties.
Silkworm feeding on mulberry
Improved silk cocoons
and phytohormone
after phytohormone
A cheap moulting phyto-hormone (MH) preparation that provides better quality of silk in a
short time has been developed from an indigenous natural source. The MH formulation was
prepared by a continuous extraction technique using an indigenous plant that is widely
growing in the coastal region of India. Application of the formulation at a very low
concentration (20 ppm) assists in faster and uniform spinning of the silk worms leading to
better silk productivity with minimum loss of silk. The product is given to Central Sericulture
Research Training Institute, Mysore for free distribution to silk farmers.
Development of thermo tolerant hybrid strain
The success of sericulture industry depends upon several factors of which the impact of the
environmental factors such as biotic and abiotic factors is of vital importance. Among the
abiotic factors, temperature plays a major role on growth and productivity of silkworm, as it is

32
a poikilothermic insect. It is also known that the late age silkworms prefer relatively lower
temperature than young age and fluctuation of temperature during different stages of larval
development was found to be more favourable for growth and development of larvae than
constant temperature. There is ample literature stating that good quality cocoons are produced
within a temperature range of 22-27°C. Moreover, it is estimated that more than 3000
silkworm strains are available all over the world due to various ongoing breeding programmes
Nagaraju, 2002; Thangavelu et al., 2003). Harada (1956) viewed that new silkworm breed has
been evolved through hybridization followed by selection. It is important to the farmers to
breeding a new good quality silk worm varieties that are thermo-tolerant hybrid strain for
rearing. Kumar and Yamamoto (1995) developed a suitable high temperature tolerant
biovoltine hybrid i.e HTO5 X HTP5 to cope with high temperature (32±1°C) and low
humidity (50±5%) conditions. Now-a-days, large number of thermo-tolerant hybrid strains
have been developed.
Late age larvae of HTO5 x HTP5 Cocoons of HTO5 x HTP5
Application of Nanotechnology in Sericulture
Research and development is now focusing on applications of nanomaterials on human
health, energy, defence, catalysis and environment. Efforts are initiated not only towards the
health sector but also in the field of agricultural sector (Ulrichs et al.,2006). Surface-modified
hydrophobic as well as lipophilic nanosilica could be effectively used as novel drugs for
treatment of nuclear polyhedrosis virus (BmNPV) (Barik et al., 2008). Also, research on silk
worm, Bombyx mori L. race Nistari clearly demonstrates that nano particle could stimulate
more production of fibroin protein (Bhattacharyya, 2009).
Thin section of
TEM (left) and SEM (right)
polyhedral showing
micrographs of nanosilica (Li et al. 2006)
virus particles

33
Application of Radiation in Sericulture
Irradiation has immense potential and lots of applications (Chanu and Ibotombi, 2011).
Gamma irradiation of the eggs of Bombyx mori with doses of 2.00-4.00 Gy increased
hatchability by 2.4-7.2%, larval survival rate by 3.65-17.93%, mean cocoon weight by 0.42-
6.98% and raw cocoon yield by 6.7-16.5% (Petkov et al., 1998). Application of five doses of
gamma radiation ranging from 0.01 to 1 Gy at the stage of development of eggs in Bombyx
mori achieved the greatest effect at a dose of 1 Gy which resulted in a significant increase in
larval weight and silk glands by 21.96 and 30.14% resp., an increase in cocoon weight and
shell by 11.11 and 9.76%, resp., and an increase in the length of silk filaments and weight by
22.96 and 22.53%, respectively (Abdel-Salam et al., 1995). Irradiation of eggs favourably
influenced the fecundity of emerged adults. Eggs (48- and 144-h-old) of Bombyx mori when
exposed to gamma radiation, the cocoon weight of the 4th generation of insects reared from
treated eggs was greater than that of insects from untreated eggs (Rao et al., 1994).
Silk worm Data Base (Silk DB)
The Silk DB is an open-access database for genome biology of the silk worm, Bombyx mori,
including genome assembly, gene annotation, chromosomal mapping, orthologous
relationship and experiment data.
Sericulture of tomorrow
The development and improvement of the current protocol of silkworm transgenesis open
new areas of applications both for fundamental research and for applied fields. Transformed
silk worms could also be used to study the secretion of foreign fibrous proteins as for example
the spider silk with the aim of developing new textile fibres. Silk worms can also be
transformed in order to improve sericultural strains. More particularly, it would be very
beneficial to produce strains resistant to baculovirus infections. This has been initiated by
fighting against viral functions through RNA interference and by attempting to increase host
tolerance functions against the virus.
Most of the damage to sericulture can be attributed directly to silk-worm diseases,
unfavorable weather conditions and poor harvest of mulberry leaves. Therefore, prevention of
silk-worm diseases and breeding of a silk worm variety with high productivity are important
commercial aspects of sericulture. India with its diverse environmental conditions is known
for the local races of silk worms that are rich reservoirs of many resistant genes. These

34
genetic resources can be used for development of disease resistant hybrids in sericulture, and
molecular markers as a tool can be used to study the inheritance of such complex traits. Study
on the biodiversity of wild silk worm is also needed to protect these genetic resources and
their ecologically diverse habitats.

35
LAC INSECT ­ LAC CULTURE
Classification
Lac Insect (Lakh ka-kira)
Phylum: Arthopoda; Class: Insecta; Order: Hemiptera; Sub-order: Homoptera;
Super-family: Coccidae; Family: Leciferidae; Genus:Laccifer; Species:lacca
Introduction
Lac is one of the most precious gifts of nature to man and lac insects are exploited for their
products of commerce like resin, dye and wax. Since very early times, lac insects and their
products have been known to naturalists. As observed by Watt (1908) "Lac enters into the
Agricultural, Commercial, Artistic, Manufacturing, Domestic and sacred feelings and
enterprises of the people of India to an extent hardly appreciated by the ordinary observers".
Today an average of about 20 -22 thousand tons of stick lac (raw lac) is produced in the
country per year. It pays an important role in contribution of foreign exchange earnings and
also provides a subsidiary income to the socioeconomically weakest persons of India.
HISTORY
Since ancient times, Greeks and Romans were familiar with the use of lac. The cultivation of
lac insects has a long history in Asia, with some suggestion that it is as old as 4000 years in
China where its cultivation accompanied with the development of the silk industry. The lac
has been referred in ancient Sanskrit words viz,, Atharva-Veda (Dave, 1950; flora, 1952) and
was called "Luxa'. The English word lac synonyms Lakh in Hindi which itself is derivative of
Sanskrit word Laksh meaning a lakh or hundred thousand. It would appear that Vedic people
knew that the lac is obtained from numerous insects. It is mentioned in Mahabharat that `Luxa
Griha' was made up of lac which was prepared by Kaurava for Pandavas. Abul Fazal (1590)
in his famous book `Ain-i-Akbari' has mentioned in detail about the lac industry in India.
Mandihassan (1959, 1952), has referred about the lac insect and its products in China. The
first scientific reference regarding the lac and lac insect is reported by Kerr and Glover in
1782. Increasing demand of lac products after World War-II has received attention in the
present century. In order to increase the production of lac by scientific methods, an
association named Indian Lac Association (I.L.A) was formed in 1921, Lac Research Institute
(L.R.I) was established at Namkum, Ranchi in 1924, with a view to have greater participation
of the Government. In 1930, the Indian Lac Cess Committee (I.L.C.C.) was formed and the
committee took over the Indian Lac Research Institute (ILRI) in 1957. Then the need for a

36
Lac Extension wing was felt and thereafter a Lac Extension Wing (L.E.W.) under the Indian
Lac Cess Committee (I..L.C.C.)was created.
DISTRIBUTION
India has its monopoly on the production of lac. Other countries like Africa, Australia, Brazil,
Myanmar, Sri Lanka, China, Formosa, France, W. Germany, Japan, Malaya, Nepal, Spain,
Thailand, Turkey, U.S.A. and some others also produce lac. But in Thailand, Malaya, Burma
and Nepal the lac producing industries are increasing day-by-day. Thailand has become the
main competitor of India in export of lac. In India over 90% of lac produced comes from the
states Assam (1Cashi Hills), Bengal (Calcutta, Jangipur, Murshidabad, Mathrapur, Malda),
Bihar (Manbhum, Palamau, Ranchi, Santhal Pragana), Delhi, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh ,
Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh (Damoh, Champa, Bilàspur, Rewa, Umaria), Madras
(Coimbatore), Mysore, Odisha (Cuttak, Mayurbhanj), Punjab (Hoshiarpur, Shahpur),
Rajasthan (Indergarh, Kota, Jaipur, Thallawar, Karauli), and Uttar Pradesh (Ghazipur,
Mirzapur, Agra) etc.
HABITAT AND ITS HOST PLANTS
Lac insects live like a parasite in host plants. It sucks juices from the host plant cells by
inserting its beak into the plant tissue. The lac insects have more than one type of host plant.
The selection of suitable host plant for the cultivation of lac is much importance. To establish
the lac industry one should know well about the topographic and climatic conditions for the
growth of host plants suitable for that particular region. Brun (1958) has mentioned that 113
varieties of host plants are found in the geographical Indian regions including Pakistan and
Myanmar. Out of these 113 host plants only 15 are very common in India which is as follows:

Details

Pages
Type of Edition
Erstausgabe
Year
2016
ISBN (PDF)
9783960675808
ISBN (Softcover)
9783960670803
File size
14.7 MB
Language
English
Publication date
2016 (October)
Keywords
Shrimp Pearl Pisciculture Wool industry Dairy Aquaponics Apiculture Vermicomposting Seri culture Lac culture Animals of India Livestock
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