From Intraregional West African Migration toward an Exodus to Europe. A Case Study on Ghana
©2017
Textbook
109 Pages
Summary
West Africa’s patterns of migration in pre-colonial and early post-colonial times were predominantly internal and regional; from landlocked Sahelian countries to relatively prosperous mines, plantations and coastal cities. This was very significant in ensuring quality brain and skills circulation in the region. Out-migration to Europe, despite the numerous benefits that come along with it, remains a huge problem for the region and very worrisome to policy makers. As the previous significant brain and skills circulation that existed in the region has shifted to Europe, it paralysed its human and socioeconomic development efforts. On the other hand it is a huge and an unbearable burden on the social welfare system and job market of Europe.
Considering the problematic and worrisome nature of unskilled, semi-skilled and professional youth migration, this study is set to search for its determinants. The findings are intended for a better and more informed policy formulation. Assuming that at the beginning of the 21st Century, West Africa’s migratory trends to Europe have changed from predominantly regular to alarmingly irregular and clandestine, this research also investigates the motivations behind this trend. The focus of this study is the migration flow from West Africa to Europe, using Ghana as a case study.
Considering the problematic and worrisome nature of unskilled, semi-skilled and professional youth migration, this study is set to search for its determinants. The findings are intended for a better and more informed policy formulation. Assuming that at the beginning of the 21st Century, West Africa’s migratory trends to Europe have changed from predominantly regular to alarmingly irregular and clandestine, this research also investigates the motivations behind this trend. The focus of this study is the migration flow from West Africa to Europe, using Ghana as a case study.
Excerpt
Table Of Contents
employment generation; ensure unrestricted access to quality and affordable post-secondary
education and training and to mainstream population control agenda in development.
Europe must explore the opportunity of promoting temporary regular migration and return, to
reduce the options for clandestine and irregular migration. It must be commitment to promoting
agriculture in the region by significantly opening its markets and genuinely reduce its subsidies
to its farmers and high tariffs.
iv
KURZFASSUNG
Die Muster der Migration in Westafrika waren in der präkolonialen sowie in der frühen
postkolionalen Zeit vorwiegend inländisch und regional geprägt. Diese Muster traten von
landumschlossenen sahelischen Ländern bis zu relativ wohlhabenden Minen, Plantagen und
Küstenstädten auf und hatten große Bedeutung in der Sicherstellung der regionalen Versorgung
mit Kompetenzen und Wissen. Obwohl die Bevölkerungsabwanderung nach Europa zahlreiche
Vorteile mit sich bringt, bleibt sie ein riesiges Problem für die Region und bereitet öffentlichen
Entscheidungsträgern große Sorgen, da der einst vorhandene Austausch an Kompetenzen und
Wissen sich nach Europa verlagert hat und somit die Bemühungen um eine menschliche und
sozioökonomische Entwicklung gelähmt hat. Auf der anderen Seite bedeutet die
Bevölkerungsabwanderung aber auch eine riesige und nicht tragbare Last für die sozialen
Versorgungssysteme und den Arbeitsmarkt in Europa. Mit Blick auf die problematischen und
besorgniserregenden Erscheinungsformen der Jugendmigration von professionellen bzw. fertig
ausgebildeten jungen Menschen bis zu solchen, die nur teilweise oder gar nicht ausgebildet
sind, ist diese Arbeit darauf ausgerichtet die bestimmenden Faktoren dieser Formen der
Migration zu erforschen. Die Erkenntnisse sollen dazu dienen bessere und fundierte öffentliche
Strategien zu finden und umzusetzen.
Die vorliegende Forschungsarbeit möchte außerdem der Frage nachgehen, was dazu geführt
hat, dass sich Westafrikas Migrationsbewegungen Richtung Europa zum Beginn des 21. Jhd.
von einem vorwiegend regelmäßigen Verlauf zu einem Verlauf entwickelt haben, der
bedenklich unregelmäßig ist und im Verborgenen liegt. Der Fokus dieser Arbeit, die eine
erklärende Forschungsmethodologie nutzt, liegt daher auf Wanderungsströmen von Westafrika
nach Europa und bindet Ghana als Fallstudie ein. Die Erkenntnisse haben gezeigt, dass eine
Vielfalt von Faktoren (individuell, familiär, national sowie international) auf verschiedenen
v
Ebenen zu den beobachteten Entwicklungen beitragen und junge Menschen dazu bringen als
Ziel der Abwanderung Europa zu wählen. Migrationsfaktoren, die über Zeitperioden und
Zielorte hinwegreichen sind Arbeitsplätze, Bildung und Familie. Arbeitsverwandte Motive
stehen dabei an erster Stelle, gefolgt von Studiengründen und Familienzusammenführungen.
Es wird empfohlen, dass jedes Westafrikanische Land eine Migrationspolitik betreibt, die die
Entwicklung des jungen Bevölkerungsteils in Betracht zieht und durch gewissenhaftes
makroökonomisches Management zum Wachstum der Beschäftigungsmöglichkeiten beiträgt.
Außerdem sollte uneingeschränkter Zugang zu qualitativ guter und bezahlbarer höherer
Bildung gewährleistet werden und die Bevölkerungsentwicklung in die (entwicklungs-)
politische Agenda integriert werden.
Auf der anderen Seite muss Europa Optionen prüfen bzw. erforschen, die eine temporäre
Migration mit Rückkehr ermöglichen und so die heimliche bzw. unregulierte Migration
zurückdrängen. Weiterhin wird Europa sich in hohem Maße dafür einsetzen müssen lokale
Landwirtschaft in Afrika durch die Öffnung europäischer Märkte und die ernstgemeinte
Reduzierung von einseitigen Agrarsubventionen und Zöllen zu stärken.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...i
DEDICATION ... ii
ABSTRACT ... iii
KURZFASSUNG ... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vii
LIST OF FIGURES ... x
LIST OF TABLES ... x
ACRONYMS ...xi
GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN MIGRATION ... xiii
: INTRODUCTION ...1
Background...
1
Present Situation of Youth in sub-Saharan Africa ... 4
Evolution of West African-Europe Migration Patterns ... 5
Historical Pattern of Migration from Ghana to Europe ... 8
Problem
Statement
...
11
Research
Objective
...
13
Research
Questions
...
14
Justification of the Study ... 14
Scope of the Study ... 16
Limitation of the Study ... 17
Research
Gaps
...
18
vii
: REVIEW OF MIGRATION THEORIES ... 20
Introduction
...
20
Neoclassical Economics and Push-Pull Theory ... 20
Historical-Structural
Models
...
22
Social Capital and Network Theory ... 24
Migration Systems Theory ... 26
New Economics of Labour Migration ... 27
Critique of Migration Theories ... 29
Chapter
Summary
...
33
: METHODOLOGY ... 36
Research
design
...
36
Sources of Data ... 37
: SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT OF GHANA ... 38
Introduction
...
38
Background of Development Initiatives in Ghana ... 38
Growth and Poverty ... 39
Demographic
Changes
...
40
Economic Environment and Reform Programmes ... 42
Labour Market and Employment ... 44
Human capital Development and Employment ... 46
Migration Policy of Ghana ... 48
Chapter
Summary
...
50
: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 52
Introduction
...
52
viii
Characteristics of Ghanaian Emigrants Living in Europe ... 52
5.2.1 Age Distribution of Ghanaian Emigrants ... 52
5.2.2 Distribution of Ghanaian Emigrants and Main Destinations ... 53
5.2.3 Economic Activities & Education of Ghanaian Emigrants ... 55
5.2.4 Migrant Family, Network & Socio-Economic Status Effects ... 56
Motives of Migration from Ghana/West Africa to Europe ... 58
5.3.1 High Unemployment Rate & Insufficient Motivation ... 58
5.3.2 Pursuit of Higher Education and Training ... 62
5.3.3 Family
Reunion
...
64
5.3.4 Migration
Motives
MAFE-Biographic Survey Data ... 65
5.3.5 Chapter
Summary
...
68
Why the Growing Irregular Migration? ... 68
Why Return Migration or Permanent Stay? ... 73
Chapter
Summary
...
74
CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS ... 75
6.1 Introduction ... 75
6.2 Summary ... 75
6.3 Conclusions ... 78
6.4 Recommendations ... 81
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 86
ix
Figure 3: Motives of Departure from Ghana to Europe, by Period of Departure of Last Migration
(1975-2009) among Migrants Currently Living Abroad- MAFE Household Survey Data
Findings ... 58
Figure 4: Motives of Migration to United Kingdom and the Netherlands (1975-2009) Among
Migrants Currently Living in these Countries ... 65
Figure 5: Motives of Migration to the UK and the Netherlands (1975-2009) among Migrants
Currently Living in these Countries, by Period of First Arrival (Percent). ... 66
Figure 6: Percentage of Ghanaian Migrants by Type of Legal Status at First Arrival in the United
Kingdom and the Netherlands (1975-2009) Among Migrants Currently Living in these
Countries, by Period ... 69
Figure 7: Percentage of Migrants without Residence Permit during their First Year in the Country of
Residence, by Period of First Arrival (1975-2008). Biographic Data, Weighted Percentages. ... 70
Figure 8: Percentage of Undocumented Migrants at Arrival and at Survey Time, by Origin. ... 72
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Emigrant of Ghanaians 15 years and older by Destination and activity status ... 55
Table 2: Motives of Last Departure from Ghana to Europe, by Gender and Level of Education (1975-
2009) among Migrants Currently Living Abroad- MAFE Household Survey Data Findings ... 64
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Age Distribution of Emigrants ... 53
Figure 2: Percentage of Ghanaian Emigrants Living in Europe & America-GSS May 2013... 54
x
ACRONYMS
AEO
African Economic Outlook
ECOWAS
Economic Community of West African States
EFA
Education
For
All
ERP
Economic
Recovery
Programme
FCUBE
Free Compulsory and Universal Basic Education
GDHS
Ghana Demographic and Health Survey
GIS
Ghana
Immigration
Services
GIZ
Deutsche
Gesellschaft
für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit
GLSS
Ghana
Living
Standards
Survey
GNDPC
Ghana National Development Planning Commission
GSS
Ghana Statistical Service
ILO
International
Labour
organisation
IOM
International Organisation for Migration
IPEC
International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour
MAFE
Migration between Africa and Europe
NPC
National Population Council
OECD
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PHC
Population
and
Housing
Census
PS
Population
and
Stabilisation
RGCSP
Republic of Ghana Country Strategy Paper
xi
SAP
Structural
Adjustment
Programme
SHS
Senior
High
School
SSS
Senior
Secondary
School
SWAC
Sahel and West Africa Club
UN
United
Nations
UNDESA
UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNECA
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNPY
United Nations Programme on Youth
WB
World
Bank
xii
GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN MIGRATION
a) International migration: Process by which a person changes her country of usual
residence.
b) Immigration: Process by which a non-national moves into a country and changes her
country of usual residence, as seen from the perspective of the country of destination.
c) Emigration: Process by which a person departs from one country and changes her
country of usual residence, as seen from the perspective of the country of origin.
d) Migration/Migratory flow: Number of migrants moving to or from a given location
within a specific time period for the purpose of establishing residence.
e) Labour migration: Process by which people change their place of usual residence for
the purpose of employment.
f) Circular migration: Temporary, legal movement of people between two or more
countries allowing some degree of mobility in order, for instance, to take up seasonal
employment or study or to return temporarily to their country of origin.
g) Economic migration: Process by which a person changes their country or place of
usual residence in order to improve their living conditions.
h) Illegal/Irregular immigration: Process by which a person moves into a country in
order to change their country of usual residence in breach of immigration regulations.
i) Brain drain: Emigration of trained and talented individuals and by extension, the loss
suffered as a result by the country of origin.
j) Brain gain: Immigration of trained and talented individuals and, by extension, the
benefits that this brings to the host country.
Source: European Union, (2013)
xiii
Youth: According to UN, youth refers to those persons within the age brackets of 15 and 24
years. While according to African Youth Charter youth are persons within the age brackets of
15 and 35 years old (UNESCO 2009-2014).
xiv
: INTRODUCTION
Background
Two things are irrefutable about migration, whether it is national (rural-urban), international,
forced or voluntary and these are, the phenomenon is age-old and that people will ever remain
on the move. For centuries, man, for reasons of religion, social, economic or politics, has been
moving across borders and seas, settling and resettling within different national territories. As
one of the world´s greatest population change dynamics, migration could be considered an
important human experience and the greatest defining global problem of the 21st Century.
This century is witnessing the greatest movement of people than ever before, especially, across
international boundaries using various means of transport. The permanent nature of this
phenomenon, its magnitude, significance and impact on social organisations in countries of
destination and on socio-economic development of countries of origin have been huge. This
continues to be a cause of concern for all, in particular for policy makers. International
migration which refers to the movement of people from their countries of origin to another,
could be either voluntary or forced with reasons ranging from economic, refugee and family
reunion.
Just five years into the 21st Century, in 2005, the world registered about 200 million migrants,
approximately 3 percent of the entire global population. This figure doubled the 1980 world
migrant figure of 100 million. The registered migrant population for 1990 was 150 million.
The wealthiest OECD economies with more affluent lifestyles, received about 97 million
migrants in the year 2000 and out of this figure approximately 40 percent of them are citizens
1
of developing OECD member states and the rest are from other regions (Lauzon and Chambas,
2006 p.3).
This trend has significantly increased in recent years. As of 2013, there were 232 million
international migrants globally. Out of this figure about 59 percent are found in the developed
nations and only 41 percent are resident in developing nations. Out of the 136 million
international migrants living in the North (developed nations), about 82 million, representing
60 percent of migrants, come from the global South (developing nations) (UN International
Migration Report, 2013 p.1-3).
Worldwide international migrant stock according to estimates, between 1990 and 2013, rose
to over 77 million, representing 50 percent of the total migrant population. Approximately 4.6
million migrants were added each year between 2000 and 2010, compared to 2 million annual
figure between 1990 to 2000 and the annual growth of 3.6 million from 2010-2013. Out of this
figure, developing regions, account for 24 million which translates into 31 per cent (UN
International Migration Report, 2013 p.1-3).
Although empirical evidence suggests that relatively speaking, rich people have the highest
propensity to migrate because they have the means to bear the costs and risks involved (De
Haas, 2007; 2008). However, it has been realised that most migrants in absolute terms do
migrate from the global South (developing countries) to the global North (developed
countries). According to World Bank, (as cited in World Migration Report, 2013), in 2010
alone, 45 percent of the total migratory flows are from the South to the North while North to
South flows represented only 3 percent.
In 2010, WB indicates that 95 million people moved from South to North while according to
UNDP and UN DESA figures, South-North migration flow in 2010 were 87 million and 74
million respectively. Both figures maintain that majority of world´s migrants live in the
2
developed world, which is between 56 percent and 62 percent, UNDP and WB figures
respectively. In absolute terms, majority of the international migrants in 2010 that were born
in developing countries and residing in the global North varies between 147 and 174 million,
UN DESA and UNDP respectively. That is 69 percent and 81 percent, UN DESA and UNDP
respectively (World Migration Report, 2013 p.55-56).
Over the past few decades, there has been an upsurge in both regular and irregular migration
of African youths to Europe using various means of transport and routes. Since the 1960s
despite Europe´s restrictive migration policies, both the stock and flows of migrants from sub-
Saharan Africa
1
to Europe have been steadily increasing. For instance Zlotnik (1993) (as cited
in Schoumaker et al., 2013) noted that, legal migration flows from sub-Saharan Africa to just
six European nations-Belgium, Germany, France, United Kingdom, the Netherlands and
Sweden, have approximately increased from 13,000 annually in the early 1960s to 50,000 in
the late 1980s. Early 2000s data, according to Schoumaker et al. (2013) indicate that the yearly
intercontinental legal migrant figures from sub-Saharan Africa to Europe is over 100,000.
When one includes figures from destinations such as Spain, Italy and Portugal and so on, it
would mean that the figure will surpass the 100,000 limit.
Sub-Saharan asylum seekers living in the above mentioned six European nations alone in the
early 1980s, accounted for a little above 10,000 each year, however, in 2001, it was above
60,000 (Migration Policy Institute, 2007, as cited in Schoumaker et al., 2013). Although
estimating illegal migration proofs difficult, however, according to De Haas (2006) (as cited
in as in Schoumaker et al., 2013), many observers suggest that this flow has been on the rise
between Africa and the EU in particular since the 1990s. Schoumaker et al. (2013) estimates
1
Sub-Saharan Africa excludes the Arab speaking Africa or North Africa and comprises only black Africa.
3
that the number of migrants arriving in Europe each year, is in "several hundred thousand" in
number (Schoumaker et al., 2013 p.4).
In 2004, African migrants living in the OECD member states was officially estimated at about
7.2 million which accounted for about 13 percent of immigrants from other non-OECD
member states. Out of this figure, only 3.4 million were from sub-Saharan Africa (black
Africa), which includes West Africa and 3.8 million are of North African origin, mainly Arab
speaking countries (Lauzon and Chambas, 2006). In 2013, the total international migrants in
Europe stood at 72 million. Between 1990 and 2013 the estimated migrant population of
Europe was 23 million, representing 1 million annually. And out of this figure only 18 per cent
comes from Africa (UN International Migration Report, 2013).
The number of Africans who travelled to Europe through the sea in 2004 amounted to about
2.6 million (Asiegbu, 2009 p.14). As of January 2011, the total migrant population living in
EU member states was about 33.3 million, representing 6.6 percent of the entire population of
EU-27 member states. As for distribution based on continent of origin, 37.2 percent are
nationals of European countries that are not part of the EU. This is followed by Africa 24.9
percent, Asians 21.3 percent, and Americans 15.8 percent. Out of the total African population
living in EU, more than half are from North Africa, in particular Morocco and Algeria
(Eurostat, March, 2013, extracted on 4.24.2014).
Present Situation of Youth in sub-Saharan Africa
In West Africa, there are 16 French, English and Portuguese speaking countries and each of
them have a huge youthful population. With its teeming and energetic youth population, this
region is currently troubled with chronic youth unemployment, low quality education, poor
labour market conditions, and limited skills jobs. In general, opportunities for the youth are
4
minimal and the most worrying part of it is that by 2050, 18.8 per cent of the region´s
population will be youth (Regional Overview: Youth in Africa UNECA & UNPY; 2010-2011)
The 2014 youth employment report of Independent Evaluation Group and World Bank Group
on Africa, predicts that, by 2015 the youthful population of sub-Saharan Africa, between the
age brackets of 15 and 24 will be about 193 million (World Bank Group, 2014)
2
. Perhaps
would be very close to double, if we go by the definition of youth by African Youth Charter;
which defines youth as any person within the age brackets of 15 and 35 years (UNESCO 2009-
2014). With the current growth rate, the region´s youth population is the fastest in the world
and by 2050 it is expected to reach 362 million (WB Group, 2014).
Since there is currently very little opportunities availed to these crowded youths in terms of
gainful and sustained employment and productivity, there is a threat to the region´s
development and peaceful co-existence. At the moment, even the employed youths are faced
with underemployment, low earnings, limited opportunities for professional growth and
development. Having little prospects for increasing their incomes, to engage in productive
activities and the opportunity to fully utilize their skills, these youth have been and will
continue to search for greener pastures elsewhere (WB Group, 2014).
Evolution of West African-Europe Migration Patterns
As the case in other parts of Africa and elsewhere in the world, numerous evidences exist that
confirmed that mobility within and between West Africa and the outside world existed long
before colonialism. In the precolonial era, through events such as conquest, caravan (trans-
Saharan) trade, pilgrimage and the desire for religious education, there used to be intensive
2
https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/event/paving-road-youth-employment-west-africa
5
population mobility within West Africa and between West and North Africa and the Arab
world.
In the pre-colonial and early post-colonial times, patterns of migration in West Africa was
predominantly internal and regional. For instance in the early 1960s migration in West Africa
was primarily intra-regional-North-South movements. Movements from landlocked Sahelian
countries such as Burkina Faso, Mali, Chad and Niger to relatively rich mines, plantations and
coastal countries such as Liberia, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Nigeria, The Gambia
and Senegal (Adepoju, 2005;Yaro, 2008).
Ghana and Ivory Coast, according to Anarfi & Kwankye (2003), due to their relative
prosperous economies and their pan-African policies in the 1960s, attracted pools of internal
and regional labour migrants from Togo, Nigeria, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Niger and Mali and
so on. Nigeria, according to van Hear (1998), in the early 1970s, resulting from her oil boom,
took over from Ghana and Ivory Coast as a major immigrant receiving country in West Africa,
attracting both professionals and low-skilled workers from all over the region.
Yaro (2008), noted that, Network of Surveys on Migration and Urbanization in West Africa
(NESMUWA) conducted a research in 1993 and documented that from 1988 to1992; there
were more than 6.4 million migratory movements between Burkina Faso, Guinea, Ivory Coast,
Mali, Niger, Mauritania and Senegal. Out of these migratory flows, 2.3 million were regional.
This according to him, used to be a significant brain and skill circulation in the region, which
complemented the manpower shortages of most newly and impoverished independent states in
West Africa (Yaro, 2008; Adepoju, 2005).
However, thanks to West Africa´s instability, civil wars and continuous economic decline and
Libya´s favourable immigration policies, the trans-Saharan out-migration system got
vigorously revitalised in the 1990s and beyond. Because West Africans have lost their major
6
migration destinations-Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria and confronted with the absence of
another major destination within West Africa, most migrants are prompted to look for suitable
destinations outside the region (Adepoju, 2004; Morris, 1998; Black et al., 2004; Drumtra,
2006; Kress, 2006 as cited in Adepoju, 2000). This search eventually landed them outside the
region first to destinations like North Africa, South Africa and the Arab world (Adepoju, 2000).
The contemporary migration system between West and North Africa which lost its previous
appeal with the advent of colonial rule, got revived and strengthened between 1990 and 2000.
This was when UN placed an embargo on Libya and due to this embargo, Libya progressively
changed her foreign policy in favour of pan-African policies and began to welcome citizens
from other African countries. Subsequently, the whole of Arab North African nations/Maghreb
states including Libya and Sudan became the desired destination for West African migrants in
search of jobs in the oil fields (De-Haas, 2008).
However, following the violent clashes that took place between black African migrant workers
and Libyans in the year 2000 and the escalating xenophobia, Libya adopted a restrictive
immigration policy and began expelling West African migrants. Presumably, this resulted in
the diversification and shifting of trans-Saharan migration routes away from Libya for some
time and towards other North African nations like Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (De-Haas,
2008).
As the preferred destinations of West African youth have shrank, in around 2000, they shifted
their choice of destination and joined North Africans to enter Europe illegally through Spain,
Italy and Portugal using fishing boats (Barros et al., 2002; Boubakri, 2004). It would be
important to note that North Africans were legally migrating to Europe as labour immigrants
until when Spain and Italy introduced strict entry visa requirements in the early 1990s.
7
Again, it is imperative to state that, this does not mean that prior to the shift in destination to
Europe in the 2000s, there were no migration flows between West Africa and Europe. Of cause
there were migratory flows, but it was more of legal rather than clandestine and illegal entries.
The point is that West Africa-Europe migration landscape changed significantly in the wake
of the 21
st
Century. This trend got accelerated upon the discovery by West African youth that
there are increasing demand for migrant labour in Europe and their realisation that salaries and
living conditions are far better in Europe compare to Libya or North Africa.
Thus, having access to migration networks in both Europe and Africa and the availability of
transport service providers, through the sea and a variety of routes, West African youth began
to enter Europe in groups. This resulted in the recent unprecedented evolution in irregular
migration flows from West Africa to Europe (IOM MRS No.32, 2008).
The choice of destination for most migrants was linked to former colonial ties. Most English
speaking West Africans are found in UK, while French speaking in France and Portuguese in
Portugal. However, in the 1990s, as these traditional destination implemented stringent
migration policies, West Africans began diversifying their destinations to Mediterranean states
like Spain, Italy and to other countries in Western Europe such as Germany. Thus, turning
Germany into an important African immigration country today, hosting little more than
100,000 Africans in the year 2000. While in the early 2000s, the number of West African
youths officially received by OECD states was approximately 1.2 million (Lauzon and
Chambas, 2006 p.3-6).
Historical Pattern of Migration from Ghana to Europe
Ghana like many nations in West Africa due to commerce, circulatory nomadic routs and
forced labour, have been moving within and outside the region for centuries. However, towards
the end of the 20
th
Century and the beginning of the 21
st
Century, the migratory patterns of
8
Ghanaians changed geographically towards the western world notably to Europe and North
America.
According to Schans et al. (2013) until the 1960s, Ghana owing partly to her relative economic
prosperity, her pan-African foreign policy and partly to relative political stability, used to be a
country of net-immigration for citizens from other West African countries. Thus, historical
development of emigration from Ghana based on the available evidence has been categorised
into four distinct phases and these are:
Minimal Emigration:-This period dates from pre-colonial era up until late 1960s. Throughout
this period noted Anarfi (1982), Ghana (then called Gold Coast), had relative economic success
and was a preferred destination for West African migrants. This period coincided with massive
extraction of gold and cultivation of cocoa in the south of Ghana. During the reviewed period,
out-migration from Ghana was insignificant in terms of numbers. It was influenced more by
colonial links or ties and involved just few students and professionals. United Kingdom and
other Anglophone countries were their preferred destinations (Anarfi, et al., 2003;
IOM/Quartey, 2009).
Initial Emigration:-This period began after 1965, when Ghana began experiencing an
unprecedented economic crunch and rising unemployment. This turned the then immigrant
attractive nation into an unpleasant country for migrants and paved the way for Ghanaians to
begin out-migrating. Anarfi et al. (2003), confirmed that by the end of the decade Ghanaian
professionals such as lawyers, teachers, and administrators began out-migrating in their
numbers to countries like Nigeria, Botswana, Uganda, and Zambia. Others returned to
countries where they had received their professional trainings in search of job.
Since most African countries were newly independent nations, Ghanaian professionals were
welcomed to assist in their respective national development efforts. With the continued
9
unfavourable economic conditions most of those Ghanaians receiving training and education
abroad decided to stay back and settle down and have families (Anarfi et al., 2003).
Large-Scale Emigration: - This period was early 1980s, when out-migration in Ghana was
no more selective or limited to professionals and students alone, rather comprised of skilled,
semiskilled and unskilled people. Anarfi (1982), (as cited in Anarfi et al., 2003) argued that
during this period, people migrate out of Ghana to look for jobs in other West African
countries. The period also witnessed the intensification of professional migration from Ghana
due to the collapse of the economy and the higher demand for their skill labour abroad. Thus
out-migration in Ghana turned out to become an individual and household survival strategy in
the face of deteriorating economic situation (Anarfi et al., 2003).
Bad governance by both the military and civilian governments according to Anarfi et al.
(2003).and political persecution, imprisonment without proper court procedures and execution
as well as the confiscation of property (Quartey, 2009) forced many Ghanaians to flee their
country. The formation in 1975, of Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
with the objective "to facilitate freedom of movement, residence and employment within the
community" (Anarfi, et al., 2003 p.7), further intensified the out-migration of Ghanaians within
West Africa.
Intensification and Diasporisation of Ghanaians: -This period began in the 1990s with an
intensified emigration of Ghanaians to US, Canada and Europe as well as in Africa. Van Hear
(1998) identified Ghana to be one of the ten countries, of late, which is engaged in producing
new diaspora population. Major cities like London, New York, Hamburg and Amsterdam,
since early 1990s, have been receiving a large number of Ghanaian migrants (Schans et al.,
2013). Between 1990 and 2001, approximately 21,485 Ghanaians have entered UK alone, thus
10
in 1996, UK-Home Office reported that Ghana was one of the top ten migrant sending nations
to the United Kingdom.
The absence of systematic collection of migration data in Ghana and the undocumented status
of most migrants overseas, there is a serious dearth of accurate and up-to-date data on the total
Ghanaian migrants in the world. However, according to Schans et al. (2013), Twum-Baah
(2005) with the help of data obtained from western embassies in Ghana, estimated that as of
2003, Ghanaian migrants living in Europe, US and Canada stood at approximately 460,000.
Twum-Baah (2005) (as cited in Schans et al., 2013), estimated that about one million
Ghanaians are residing on the continent of Africa with majority living in ECOWAS member
states. However when the figures from Middle East and Asia are added, it would be
approximately 1.5 million Ghanaians abroad.
Problem Statement
Patterns of migration in West Africa in pre-colonial and early post-colonial times was mainly
internal and regional. For instance in the early 1960s migration in West Africa was primarily
intra-regional-North-South flows. Movements from landlocked Sahelian countries to relatively
rich mines, plantations and coastal countries (Adepoju, 2005; Yaro, 2008).
Ghana and Ivory Coast in the 1960s, attracted pools of internal and regional labour migrants.
Then in the early 1970s, Nigeria, took over from them as a major immigrant receiving country
attracting both professionals and low-skilled workers from all over the region (van Hear, 1998).
These migratory movements have encouraged significant brain and skill circulation which
helped complement the manpower shortages of most newly and impoverished independent
states (Yaro, 2008; Adepoju, 2005).
11
But, since the late 1980s, the hitherto traditional and attractive net-immigrant receiving
destinations have turned into net-emigrant sending countries outside of the region to Europe
and North America. This out-migration to Europe despite the numerous benefits that come
along with it today, remains a huge problem for the region. As the previous significant brain
and skill circulation that existed for instance, between Togo and Cote d'Ivoire; Ghana, Gambia
and Nigeria; and between Burkina Faso, Senegal and Cote d'Ivoire, have shifted to Europe and
US instead and this has become very worrisome as until today, the region continues to lose
much of its trained manpower to the west.
West Africa´s continuous loose of its trained and skilled professionals, has contributed to the
present acute capacity problem in the region. Adepoju (2005) noted that, at some point in the
1970s, highly skilled professionals such as doctors, teachers, lecturers, and engineers among
others, used to circulate among West African countries and this had complemented the existing
manpower shortages in the different countries.
Contemporary patterns of migration in West Africa has changed from a sub-region that
encompasses countries of internal immigration, transit and emigration to a region of out-
migration to Europe and North America. Today, Senegal, for instance, has turned into transit
country for clandestine migrants moving to European Union, while Ghana in the late 1960s
and later Nigerian in the middle of 1980s, have turned into labour exporting countries outside
of West Africa to Europe and US. What determines or propels this wide variety of migration
configurations out of this region to Europe remains a puzzle for policy makers and thus
necessitates an academic investigation for better and informed policy formulation.
Worst of all, since the year 2000, the migratory trajectories and trends from West Africa to
Europe have dramatically changed in terms of magnitude and complexity, thanks to the large
irregular boat migrant population that enters Europe through Spain and Italy monthly. For
12
Details
- Pages
- Type of Edition
- Erstausgabe
- Publication Year
- 2017
- ISBN (Softcover)
- 9783960671251
- ISBN (PDF)
- 9783960676256
- File size
- 685 KB
- Language
- English
- Institution / College
- University of Erfurt – Willy Brandt School of Public Policy
- Publication date
- 2017 (February)
- Grade
- 1.3
- Keywords
- Brain circulation Skill circulation West Africa Refugee Migration to Europe Brain and skills circulation Skills circulation Flüchtlingskrise Einwanderung Migration flow
- Product Safety
- Anchor Academic Publishing
