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Summary

The Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) environmental profiling project has been completed aiming at a healthy environment for the citizens of AJK. The Environmental Protection Agency of AJK has been providing the logistical support and moblity etc. throughout the sampling period. The present study has a very strong focus on “Indoor Air Quality Monitoring”. The monitoring has been performed at the selected locations of Muzaffarabad, Mirpur and Bhimber in residential, commercial and industrial areas for ambient air. Indoor air quality has been measured in schools, houses, hospitals and industrial units of different locations of Muzaffarabad, Mirpur and Bhimber.
Geographically, the northern part of AJK encompasses the lower part of the Himalayas. Fertile, green, mountainous valleys are characteristic of Azad Kashmir's geography, making it one of the most beautiful regions on the subcontinent. The southern parts of Azad Kashmir including Bhimber, Mirpur and Kotli districts have extremely hot weather in summers and moderate cold weather in winters. It receives rains mostly in monsoon weather. Snow fall also occurs there in December and January. This region receives rainfall in both winters and summers of the order of more than 1400 mm, with the highest average near Muzaffarabad. During summer, monsoon floods of the Jhelum and Leepa rivers are common.

Excerpt

Table Of Contents


Figure 1.1: Study area
Figure 1.2: Map of districts of Azad, Jammu and Kashmir
2

CHAPTER TWO:
BACKGROUND
S
ources of air pollution cover a wide spectrum of sources from natural
processes to man-made activities performed by human beings which are
major contributors to air pollution. A threat to clean air is posed by the
petrol and diesel fired machinery including generators, engines, etc.
Similarly, transportation is another source of air pollution. Cooking and
wood burring and other indoor activities are sources of indoor air pollution.
2.1 Ambient
Air
Ambient air is the outdoor air in which humans and other organisms
live and breathe. The contents and quality of ambient air is directly
affected by the day-to-day activities of humans. Clean air is an important
prerequisite for sustainable economic development and is a basic
requirement for human health and welfare. Air pollution contributes to
acidification and global climate change, which have an impact on crop
productivity, forest growth, biodiversity, cultural monuments and many
aspects of the national economy. The primary source of air pollution is the
combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles, industries, power plants, and the
burning of municipal solid waste.
However in AJK main sources are human activities in particular
vehicular emissions, wood combustions and other domestic activities. The
emissions occur from two types of sources i.e. stationary sources; and
mobile sources.
3

The stationary sources include power plants, compressors,
generators, leakages/spills of oil and gas from transmission lines and
during exploration and production activities of oil and gas. Flue gases from
combustion and other gas turbine processes are contaminated with harmful
gases and other contaminants, which if exposed to the environment may
cause deleterious effects on living beings.
Mobile sources include motorized vehicles which results in the
emission of a wide variety of pollutants, principally carbon monoxide (CO),
oxides of nitrogen (NO
x
), oxides of Sulphur and Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs).
Such emissions have an adverse impact on the air quality and health
of human beings, particularly those who are directly exposed to this
pollution.
2.2 Indoor Air Pollution
Indoor air is that which we breathe in our 'built' environment.
National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) of Australia defines
indoor air as air within a building occupied for at least one hour by people
of varying states of health. This can include the office, classroom, transport
facility, shopping centre, hospitals and homes. Indoor air quality is infact
defined as the totality of attributes of indoor air that affect a person's
health and well being.
Relatively little attention is paid to the kinds and levels of gaseous
and particulate pollutants that might be encountered in typical indoor air
environment in Pakistan. Such pollutants are emitted by wood/ dung
burning and kerosene stoves, dust, and fumes from paints and chemicals
used in polishing industry. There is also an increasing trend toward "energy
efficient" buildings that incorporate urea formaldehyde foam insulation.
Carpets and decreased ventilation rates further exacerbate indoor
pollution. More than 50% of households in Pakistan still use wood/biomass
for cooking. It is recognized that indoor concentrations, not only of
asbestos but also of the criteria pollutants such as CO, NO
2
, and Particulate
4

Matter (PM) often exceed their urban atmosphere's outdoor levels. It is a
term referring to the air quality within and around buildings and structures,
especially as it relates to the health and comfort of building occupants.
IAQ can be affected by microbial contaminants (mold, bacteria).
Indoor air is becoming an increasingly more concerning health hazard than
outdoor air. Using ventilation to dilute contaminants, filtration, and source
control are the primary methods for improving indoor air quality in most
buildings. Determination of IAQ involves the collection of air samples,
monitoring human exposure to pollutants, collection of samples on building
surfaces and computer modeling of air flow inside buildings.
2.3 AJK at a Glance
The Azad State of Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) lies in the north of
Pakistan covering an area of 5,134 square miles (13,297 square
kilometers) as shown in Figure 1. According to the population census of
1998, the total population of AJK is 2.915 million, of which 88 percent is in
rural and 12 percent in urban areas. The population density is 224 persons
per square kilometer as against 164 in the rest of Pakistan. The next
population census is due in 2017 to be conducted by the federal
government.
AJK lies between longitudes 73
o
and 75
o
and between latitudes 33
o
and 36
o
. The topography is mostly hilly and mountainous with numerous
valleys and stretches of plains. A large proportion of the area is under thick
forest cover, with fast flowing rivers and winding streams. The forest cover
is about 566,969 hectares, which is 42.6 percent of the total geographical
area of AJK. The main rivers are the Jhelum, Neelum and Poonch.
Elevations range from 360 meters in the south to 6,325 meters in the
north. The climate is sub-tropical highland type with an average yearly
rainfall of 150 cm. AJK comprises of two divisions ­ Muzaffarabad and
Mirpur. The Muzaffarabad Division is further divided into four
administrative districts (Muzaffarabad, Bagh, Poonch and Sudhnuti),
whereas the Mirpur Division is divided into three districts (Mirpur, Kotli and
5

Bhimber) as shown in Figure 2. A total of seven industrial estates have
been established in AJK, with 830 industrial units including wood works,
food processing, flour mills, poultry farms, textile mills and printing
presses.
6

CHAPTER THREE:
METHODOLOGY
I
n order to have baseline values of different pollutants of the area this
study has been conducted. Field data on ambient and indoor air pollution
was collected at the selected locations of Muzaffarabad, Mirpur and
Bhimber in residential, commercial and industrial areas for ambient air and
in schools, houses, hospitals and industrial units for indoor air quality, by
using USEPA recommended monitoring equipment.
3.1 Data
Acquisition
3.1.1 Field Measurements
Field measurement data was collected for criteria pollutants Nitrogen
Oxide (NO
x
), Sulphur Dioxide (SO
2
), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Particulate
Matter (PM
10
, PM
2.5
)
,
Ozone (O
3
) as well as along with Carbon Dioxide
(CO
2
), VOCs [including Benzene, Toluene, Ethyl Benzene, Xylene (BTEX)],
meteorological parameters, Formaldehyde, Fungal Bioaerosols, and noise
levels in residential, commercial and industrial areas for ambient air of
Muzaffarabad, Mirpur and Bhimber and in schools, houses, hospitals and
industrial units for indoor air quality.
The measurements were above the following detection limits:
7

Equipment
Min. Concentration Limits
SO
2
Analyzer ~1
g/m
3
CO Analyzer
< 0.5 g/m
3
NO
x
Analyzer
~ 1 g/m
3
PM
10
/ PM
2.5
Sampler
~ 5 g/m
3
Noise Sampler
~20 dB
CO
2
Analyzer ~1
g/m
3
O
3
Analyzer ~1
g/m
3
Table: 3.1: Concentration limits of different equipment
Duration of measurements for each pollutant (CO, CO
2
, NO
x
, SO
2
,
and PM
10
/PM
2.5
) was 6 to 24 hours at each location. USEPA
methods/procedures for monitoring the air quality were used.
Units of measurement for air pollutants were g/m
3
for PM
10
while
ppm & ppb for gaseous pollutants. The following conversion were used to
convert ppb and ppm to g/m
3
X ppm = (Y mg/m
3
)*(24.45)/molecular weight
NOx Molecular Weight = 46.01(1 ppm= 1.88 mg/m
3
)
SO
2
Molecular Weight = 64.06 (1 ppm = 2.62 mg/m
3
)
CO Molecular Weight = 28.0101(1 ppm = 1.15 mg/m
3
)
CO
2
Molecular Weight = 44.0095(1 ppm = 1.8 mg/m
3
)
Y= Observed value in mg/m
3
8

3.2 Ambient Air Monitoring Methods
Pollutants Methods
Principle of
Operations
NO
x
Reference Method in Appendix
F of 40 CFR Part 50
Chemiluminescence
SO
2
Ambient Monitoring Reference &
Equivalent Method of 40CFR
Part 52
Fluorescence Method
CO
Method in Appendix C of 40 CFR
Part 50
IR Gas Filter
Correlation
CO
2
Method in Appendix C of 40 CFR
Part 50
IR Gas Filter
Correlation
PM
10
/PM
2.5
Reference Method in Appendix
J of 40 CFR Part 50
Gravimetric Method
VOC
Reference Method in Appendix
B of 40 CFR Part 52
Gas Chromatography
O
3
Reference Method NO.EQOA-
0992-087 of 40 CFR Part 53
Non dispersive UV
absorption method
Noise level
Ambient Monitoring Reference &
Equivalent Method 40CFR part
205
Preamplifier detector
with the help of
microphone
Table: 3.2: Ambient Air Monitoring Methods
9

3.3 Data
Acquisition
Plan
The work plan followed for data acquisition was as under:
3.3.1 Muzaffarabad
Site No -I: Old Secretariat
Latitude: 34°21'37.50"N
Longitude:
73°28'23.10"E
Starting Date:
25-03-2010
Starting Time:
12:00 hrs
Completion Date:
26-03-2010
Completion Time: 07:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
19 hrs
Site No ­II: Madina market
Latitude: 34°22'18.65"N
Longitude:
73°28'8.84"E
Starting Date:
26-03-2010
Starting Time:
11:00 hrs
Completion Date:
27-03-2010
Completion Time: 10:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
21 hrs
Site No ­III: AIMS Hospital
Latitude:
34°19'55.83"N
Longitude:
73°28'4.80"E
Starting Date:
27-03-2010
Starting Time:
13:00 hrs
Completion Date:
27-03-2010
Completion Time: 20:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
08 hrs
Site No ­IV: Govt Girls High School (Sehli Sarkar)
10

Latitude: 34°21'27.80"N
Longitude:
73°28'28.20"E
Starting Date:
29-03-2010
Starting Time:
08:00 hrs
Completion Date:
29-03-2010
Completion Time: 17:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
9 hrs
Site No ­V: Household Mujhoi (Garhi Dopatta)
Latitude: 34°15'14.9"N
Longitude:
73°35'16.8"E
Starting Date:
30-03-2010
Starting Time:
11:00 hrs
Completion Date:
30-03-2010
Completion Time: 18:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
7 hrs
Site No ­VI: Govt. Post Graduate Collage (Garhi Dopatta)
Latitude: 34°13'27.6"N
Longitude:
73°37'01.4"E
Starting Date:
30-03-2010
Starting Time:
20:00 hrs
Completion Date:
31-03-2010
Completion Time: 15:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
19 hrs
3.3.2 Bhimber
Site No -I: Gurah Lailian/Pindi
Latitude: 32°59'02.3"N
Longitude:
74°61'00.1"E
Starting Date:
01-04-2010
Starting Time:
15:00 hrs
Completion Date:
02-04-2010
Completion Time: 13:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
22 hrs
11

Site No ­II: Govt. Dispensary
Latitude: 32°58'28.5"N
Longitude:
74°04'41.6"E
Starting Date:
02-04-2010
Starting Time:
14:00 hrs
Completion Date:
02-04-2010
Completion Time: 23:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
9 hrs
3.3.3 Mirpur
Site No ­I: Zahoor Food Industry (Old Industrial State)
Latitude:
33°09'03.7"N
Longitude:
73°43'15.2"E
Starting Date:
03-04-2010
Starting Time:
12:00 hrs
Completion Date:
03-04-2010
Completion Time: 22:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
9 hrs
Site No ­II: Alkhair Molti foam (New Industrial State)
Latitude: 33°06'41.10"N
Longitude:
73°43'26.80"E
Starting Date:
05-04-2010
Starting Time:
11:00 hrs
Completion Date:
06-04-2010
Completion Time: 11:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
24 hrs
Site No ­III: Nangi Adda
Latitude: 33°09'08.3"N
Longitude:
73°44'21.5"E
Starting Date:
06-04-2010
Starting Time:
12:00 hrs
Completion Date:
07-04-2010
Completion Time: 10:00
hrs
12

Sampling Duration:
22 hrs
Site No ­VI: Household Sector F-2 (Kharak)
Latitude: 33°08'42.5"N
Longitude:
73°44'04.0"E
Starting Date:
07-04-2010
Starting Time:
10:00 hrs
Completion Date:
07-04-2010
Completion Time: 19:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
09 hrs
Site No ­ V: Chaksawari Bridge
Latitude: 33°12'21.7"N
Longitude:
73°50'23.6"E
Starting Date:
08-04-2010
Starting Time:
11:00 hrs
Completion Date:
09-04-2010
Completion Time: 08:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
21 hrs
Site No ­VI: Chaok Shaheedan
Latitude: 33°08'55.8"N
Longitude:
73°44'56.3"E
Starting Date:
09-04-2010
Starting Time:
11:00 hrs
Completion Date:
10-04-2010
Completion Time: 11:00
hrs
Sampling Duration:
24 hrs
3.4 Site Selection Criteria
Monitoring sites were provided by EPA-AJK in consultation with
SUPARCO and the following consideration was made for site selection
x Site is representative of major contributors of air pollutants
x Reprehensive area of the city, rural or industrial activities.
x Projected area for future proposed development.
13

CHAPTER FOUR:
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARDS
T
his section summarizes standards and guidelines for a number of
contaminants commonly found indoors and outdoors, which can be used as
acceptable indoor/outdoor air quality levels. Criteria contaminants are
detailed, including carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, and
particulates.
Formaldehyde, the most well-known volatile organic compound, is
also included, but recommended concentrations for other volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) are summarized separately recommended
concentrations are provided from different agencies.
In most cases, the primary objective in setting recommended limits
was to minimize health risks to the general public, or to sectors of the
public, such as industrial workers or sensitive individuals. It is important to
note that lower limits might be needed to avoid occupant dissatisfaction,
discomfort, unacceptable odors, and sensory irritation. It is also impractical
to assume that maintaining contaminant concentrations below these
recommended levels will guarantee the absence of all adverse health
effects for all occupants.
As the standards and guidelines given in Table differ in terms of the
criteria used to set limits the population focused on, and the context for
application, readers are strongly advised to consult the source documents
before applying these recommendations.
14

4.1 Description of Sources
The standards and guidelines featured in Table are described below.
4.1.1 NAAQS/EPA
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were developed
by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under the Clean Air
Act (last amended in 1990). These enforceable standards were developed
for outdoor air quality, but they are also applicable for indoor air
contaminant levels. The concentrations are set conservatively in order to
protect the most sensitive individuals, such children, the elderly, and
those with asthma. By law, these regulatory values must be reviewed
every five years
4.1.2 OSHA
The U.S. Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA)
developed enforceable maximum exposures for industrial environments.
The standards were developed through a formal rule-making process, and
the permissible limits can only be changed by reopening this process. The
Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) given in Table are designed to protect
the average industrial worker, but do not take into account the possible
reactions of sensitive individuals (ASHRAE, 2004; OSHA, 2005).
4.1.3 WHO/Europe
The World Health Organization's (WHO) Office for Europe, based in
Denmark, developed guidelines to be used in non-industrial settings. These
guidelines were developed in 1987 and updated in 1999. They are intended
for application to both indoor and outdoor exposures, but are guidelines
rather than an enforceable standard (ASHRAE, 2004; WHO, 2000).
4.1.4 NIOSH
Recommended maximum exposures for industrial environments have
also been developed by the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH). These guidelines are published in a set of criteria
15

documents, which contain a review of relevant literature and
Recommended Exposure Limits (RELs). These non-enforceable
recommendations are not reviewed regularly, and in some cases levels are
set above those needed for health reasons because commonly available
industrial hygiene practices do not reliably detect substances at lower
levels (ASHRAE, 2004, NIOSH, 2005).
4.1.5 ACGIH
The American Council of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
recommends Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) as maximum exposures for
industrial environments. The TLVs are set by CMEIAQ-II Report 5.1
committee, who review the existing scientific literature and recommend
guideline concentrations. The recommendations are applicable for normal
industrial working conditions (i.e. 40 hours a week), and for single
contaminant exposure. These recommendations are guidelines, rather than
enforceable standards, and are not selected to protect the most sensitive
workers.
16

Figure 4.1: Sampling equipment
17

Table 4.
1:
Standards
and G
uidel
ines for
Common In
door
Contamin
ants
Unle
ss othe
rwise
sp
e
c
if
ie
d
, value
s
are
g
ive
n
in p
a
rts p
e
r million
(p
p
m)
Number i
n
brackets [ ] refers to ei
ther a cei
li
ng or t
o averagi
ng ti
mes of
le
ss t
h
an or greater than ei
ght hours
(min=m
inute
s; hr=hours; yr=ye
ar; C=
ce
iling
; L
=lo
ng
te
rm.
Where no ti
me i
s speci
fied, the avera
gi
ng ti
me
is
ei
ght hours.
Param
eters
NAAQ
S/E
PA
(2000)
a
OSHA
a
WHO/Eu
rop
e
(2000)
a
NIOS
H
(1992)
a
ACGI
H
(2001)
a
Hong
Kong
(2003)
i
Carbon dioxid
e
______
____
_
5,
000
______
___
5,
000
30,
000
[15 min]
5,
000
30,
000
[1
5
mi
n]
800/
1,
000
[8 hr]
Carbon monox
ide
9
35[
1 hr]
50
90 [
15 m
in]
, 5
0
[
30m
)
25 [1 hr], 10 [8 hr]
35
200 [
C
]
25
1.
7 /
8.
7
[8 hr]
Forma
ldehyde
(S
ee
n
o
te
e)
0.
75
2 [
1
5 m
in]
0.
081 (
0.
1m
g
/m
3
)
[30 min]
0.
016
0.
1 [
15m
in]
0.
3 [
C
]
0.
024 /
0.
081
[8hr]
Nitrogen dioxid
e
0.
05 [
1 yr]
5 [
C
]
0.
1 [
1 hr]
0.
004 [
1 yr]
1.
0 [
15 m
in]
35 [
15 m
in]
0.
021/
0.
08
[8 hr]
Ozone
0.12 [1 hr]
0.
08
0.
1
0.
064
(120
g/m
3
)
[8 hr]
0.
1[
C]
0.05-heavy wo
rk,
0.08-
modera
te
work,
0.
1-
li
ght
work,
0.2- any work
(2 hr)
0.
025 /
0.
061
[8 hr]
Partic
les
<2.5m MMA
D
1
5
g/m
3
[1
yr]
6
5
g/m
3
[24hr
]]
5 m
g
/m
3
______
____
_
______
___
3 m
g
/m
3
______
_
Partic
les
<10 m
MMAD
5
0
g/m
3
[1
yr]
150
g
/m
3
[24
hr]]
______
___
______
____
_
______
___
1
0
mg/m
3
0.
02/
0.
18 m
g
/m
3
[8hr]
Sulfur d
ioxid
e
0.
03 [
1 yr]
0.
14 [
24hr]
5
0.
048 [
24 hr]
0.
012 [
1 yr]
2
5 [
15 m
in]
2
5 [
1
5 m
in]
______
__
Total Part
ic
le
s
15 g/m
3
18

Details

Pages
Type of Edition
Erstausgabe
Year
2017
ISBN (PDF)
9783960676508
ISBN (Softcover)
9783960671503
File size
5 MB
Language
English
Publication date
2017 (May)
Grade
1
Keywords
EPA USEPA Environmental Protection Agency SUPARCO Pakistan Himalaya Indoor Air Quality Monitoring Air pollution
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