Mapping Media Responsibility. Contemporary Aspects of Morals, Ethics and Social Discourse

Gansinger, Martin A. M.; Kole, Ayman

Mapping Media Responsibility. Contemporary Aspects of Morals, Ethics and Social Discourse

by Assist. Prof. Dr. Martin A. M. Gansinger (Editor) Ayman Kole (Editor)

Summary

The purpose of this volume is to broadly discuss the media's responsibility to provide discursive contributions to the ethical and moral challenges of our times. At the crossroads of intellectual progress and profit-orientation, concentration tendencies in the academic publishing industry pose a threat to the reputation and integrity of higher education. The actions of whistleblowers like Edward Snowden have radically changed our perception of privacy, stirring debates about the ethical and moral dilemma attached to the disclosures. Islam and religion continue to rank as urgent topics in the news – with the most influential contributions to the public discourse often belonging to ideologically influenced Western voices. One century after the Bolshevik revolution in 1917, Russia is still negotiating how to categorize these events – which have recently been pointed out in a controversial TV show. The example of Nigeria makes clear that insecurity and national development go hand in hand with responsible press coverage, while the low self-perception of the Belarusian film industry is due partly to its depiction in the country’s only cinematographic publication.

Excerpt

List of Tables and Appendices

Abbas Zakria Qasmi

The representation of Islam in Western electronic media

(A critical discourse analysis of an interview with Reza Aslan

on a Fox news webcast called Spirited Debate)

Appendix A: The Interview

103

Anna Babitskaya

An integral discourse of justice as a discursive space in modern Russia.

Definitions of 'future' and its connection with 'historical past'

Appendix A: Excerpt: The Court of Time. October 1917.

The Bolsheviks destroyed or saved Russia?

136

Mercy Okon Ikpi

The press, insecurity and national development in Nigeria

(A content analysis of The Guardian and The Sun newspaper)

Table 1: News

reports

insecurity

148

Table 2:

National

development

148

Anna Babitskaya

The representation of Belorussian cinema in On the screens magazine

Table 1: Special editions and total

number

texts

164

Table 2: The number of texts fully dedicated to the following subjects

164

Table 3: Number of texts about the news of celebrations of important date

165

Table 4: Usage of words premier, holiday, anniversary

165

Table 5: Correlation of foreign and Belorussian movies which are

considered in festival and important events context

166

Table 6:

Announced

movies

166

Table 7:

Announced

Belorussian

movies

166

Table 8:

Informative

journalistic

genres

167

Table 9:

Types

articles

169

Table 10: Application of framing theory

170

Abbas Zakria Qasmi

The New York Times' depiction of Madrasas in Pakistan

Table 1: Total number of times the word `Madrasa' is used

187

Table 2: No. of times the publications mention `Madrasas in Pakistan'

188

Table 3: Two categories, namely opinions and news reports

189

Table 4: Inclination of the terms used in the publications

190

Table 5: Inclination of the publications: annual breakdown

190

About the Editors

Dr. Martin Abdel Matin Gansinger (born 1979 in Austria) studied Communication

Science and Political Science at the University of Vienna and passed both with

distinction. His Master's thesis discusses recursive patterns of cultural, social, and

political resistance in various forms of Black American musical expression and the

potential of HipHop as an alternative communication-structure for the compensation of

dysfunctional representation through mainstream-media and has been published in

2008. He furthermore analyzed the conditions of communication and interaction in

regard to the practice of collective improvisation as a musical method and its

correspondence to the concept of the Ideal Speech Situation as introduced by Habermas

as well as its efficiency in the context of Intercultural Communication to attain a

Doctor's degree in Communication Science (published 2010).

Next to being an editor and journalist for jazzzeit magazine and Vienna-based radio

station orange 94.0 from 2005-2009 he has been working as a PR-coordinator for the

internationally awarded, independent label JazzWerkstatt Records. Martin Abdel Matin

Gansinger conducted several long-term field studies abroad and received financial

funding through the University of Vienna's research scholarship. He spent a year in

Ghana in coordination with the Vienna Institue for Development and Cooperation and

Prof. John Collins from the University of Ghana/Accra, researching Intercultural

Communication processes in the context of transfusional West African music styles

including an extended stay at the local compound of the Jamaica-based Bobo Shanti-

Mansion, one of the strictest subdivisions of the Rastafari faith, and allowance to their

communal Nyahbinghi ceremonies. Further field research aiming at extemporaneous

communication techniques and its use in traditional knowledge- and recognition-

systems has been done in Fez/Morocco and the convent of the Naqshbandi Sufi order in

Lefke/Cyprus where he is working and residing since 2009. He is currently holding the

position of an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Communication at Girne American

University, teaching Undergraduate-, Master-, and Ph.D.-classes as well as appointed

Head of Department of Radio, TV Cinema.

Dr. Ayman Kole (born 1980, Sydney, Australia) completed an experience course at the

prestigious Australian, Film, TV and Radio school whilst still a student studying in

High School in 1996. He studied intensively at the University of Sydney, completing a

BA in Arts with triple majors: English, Performance Studies and Studies in Religion in

2002. He also finished a scriptwriting course at the same University. He worked as a

High School English Teacher before completing his MA in English at the University of

Sydney in 2006. During his studies in the Masters Degree program, he wrote the short

story `The Mirror' which was selected as the Phoenix Journal finalist and published by

Sydney University Press. He later was successfully accepted as a PhD student at

Charles Sturt University to commence work on his thesis encompassing Literature,

History and Creative Writing. His objective was to explore the historical, cultural and

social landscape of Eastern Europe and the Middle East with a focus on the 17

century

and he spent time in Turkey and Cyprus conducting thorough historical research. In his

work, Ayman investigated how people can be manipulated and just how quickly firmly

held beliefs can be either modified or replaced in light of effectively staged

performances. Furthermore, his thesis aimed to alert inquisitive minds to the cons and

trickery of harmful or pretentious movements and this message can be applied to the

realm of religion and politics today. One of Ayman's strengths in writing is his richly

detailed research and his ability to create a fascinating narrative not from only one

cultural perspective, but from many competing social groups of the selected era. Indeed,

his profound insightfulness of the 17

century, illustrating the differences and

commonalities between the major religions of the area are just as relevant today as they

were in the past. His novel `Mark of the Crescent' was published in Australia. He

currently holds the position as Assistant Professor and Head of Social Media

Department at Girne American University, Faculty of Communication. He primarily

lectures in Literature, Creative Writing, Film TV Production, History of

Communication, Film Criticism Analysis, Scriptwriting, Advertising, World Cinema,

Public Relations and Media Studies.

Contributors

Philip Effion Ephraim

Philip Effiom Ephraim holds a PhD in Communications and Media Management from

Girne American University, Cyprus. He is currently an Assistant Professor at Cyprus

International University, specializing in: Global media and conflict, Organizational

Behavior and Marketing Management. Previously, he worked in Nigeria as

communications faculty at Cross River University of Technology. His research covers

both critical and mainstream approaches in communication, media and marketing

management especially their applications for socio-political, economic and cultural

reform in developing countries.

Abbas Zakria Qasmi

MA Candidate at GAU, currently working on his thesis

Anna Babitskaya

MA Candidate at GAU

Mercy Okon Ikpi

MA Candidate at GAU, currently working on her thesis

Introduction

`Don't shoot the messenger'

Throughout the history, almost every type of media has been blamed and confronted

with accusations of direct or indirect responsibility for things that went wrong. From the

burning of books in the middle ages to theater plays deemed to promote immorality,

comics and TV negatively influencing the learning capacity of kids, cinema used for

manipulative propaganda purposes or the endearing campaigns of Tipper Gore and the

White Anglo-Saxon Protestants against devil-worshipping heavy metal-bands and

derogated, drug-abuse and violence promoting Gangsta Rap polluting radio waves,

corrupting the youth, as well as seemingly homophobic tendencies in Jamaican

dancehall deemed murder music by gay rights-activists media and its content seem

to have been held responsible for every illness that befalls society.

Rappers on the other hand would throw the ball back to those entrusted with influence

for shaping society by considering themselves street journalists, simply capturing and

reflecting what they are exposed to on a daily basis. Satanic black metal bands lean

towards the economically rewarding shock value by underlining the entertaining and

sales-boosting effect of gruesome, martial wardrobe and gallons of blood-substitutes

wasted on stage shows in a time where letting your hair grow over the collar of your

shirt doesn't do the job anymore for adoloscents oriented towards provocation. Art

schools are full with promising attendants that grew up on comics, ego-shooters are

regularly attested a miraculous and de-escalating katharsis-effect by studies, and the

stigma of sensationalism once worn by TV has now migrated into the webspace since a

while. The claim remains the same though, with news now disseminated via online

portals the question of whether or not the spacious coverage of suicides, mass shootings

and terror attacks is fatally tied to a spinning wheel of violence, a vicious circle of

instrumentalized propaganda and guaranteed generation of clicks did not disappear.

In addition, new scapegoats have been identified. Relatives of victims have sued

Facebook and Twitter for promoting terrorism by providing a platform for the

distribution of extremist ideology. A generation of digital supermen and virtual beauty

queens are constantly busy uploading proofs for their perfect, happy lives on thoroughly

well-taken accounts yet, hardly managing to live up to their own exaggerations,

instead they become vulnerable to patterns of depression. Social media in general

provides an even more humiliating stage for mobbing than any classroom ever did

seemingly leading to an increase in suicidal victims due to magnified pressure and

uncontroled hate speech in open online-forums are more and more seen as a threat to

social peace. Besides serving as a deadly tool in a considerable amount of deadly selfie-

accidents that even caused the Russian government to run a preventive campaign, smart

phones have been criticized for being highly addictive, dumbing down kids and

involving them in potentially exploitative and compremiting activities like sexting. In

August 2016, an Austrian court obliged a man by decree to de-install the messenger

service Whatsapp on his daughters smart phones due to them repeatedly being victims

of sexual harassment by other users. Are we back to shooting the messenger?

As has been illustrated, the area in which media responsibility is negotiated reaches

much more far than your regular discussion of `video games and violence' or `children

and advertising'. Therefore, in this book we attempt to map out a bigger picture of

possible aspects to be considered, with a special focus on recent developments and

challenges.

On the academic side of things, the generally welcomed open-access to scientific data

on the net in many cases does not seem to encourage students and scholars to intensify

the facilitated research practices but in combination with tools like Google Translate

tends to tempt them to look for an easy way out and to opt for solutions of equally

convenient and unethical nature. Due to the fact that a significant number of studies

dealing in detail with versatile and sophisticated methods being used to commit

academic fraud by students and scholars alike already exists, the opening chapter

attempts to shift the focus more on the publishing industry and its ethically and morally

charged aspects of academic integrity and profit-orientation.

Chapter two discusses the ethical dilemma that whistleblowers like Edward Snowden

have to face when they decide to disclose confidential information of public concern to

the media, using DeGeorge's Five Criteria Moral Model and the Universal Dignity

Theory. In the following contribution, ideological stereotypes of the Orient in regard to

the representation of Islam in Western media are pointed out in a Critical Discourse

Analysis of a controversial interview on Fox News. Furthermore, the negotiation of

discursive space in modern Russia in the form of a contemporary court-style TV show

that instigates a discourse of justice between the country's historical past and envisioned

future is demonstrated in Chapter four of this book. The next contribution is looking at

the role of the press in shaping discursive patterns of insecurity and national

development in Nigeria by analyzing respective contributions of national newspapers in

that context. In Chapter six, the representation of the Belorussian movie industry in the

only national magazine dedicated to cinematography serves to discuss the discursive

influence of media on negotiating national identity and self-perception. As a concluding

contribution to this volume, the depiction of Madrasas in Pakistan in The New York

Times is analyzed to furthermore add to the evaluation of media impact on the social

discourse on Islam and terrorism after 9/11.

Martin A. M. Gansinger Ayman Kole, February 2017

Martin A. M. Gansinger

Ayman Kole

Plagiarism and profit. Ethical and moral issues of scientific

writing and academic publishing in the 21

century

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to provide viewpoints and discussion of a variety

of potentially problematic aspects and mechanisms regarding academic publishing in

relation to economical and ethical issues. Starting with the establishment of wide-scale

internet access in the beginning of the 21st century, a considerable increase of

plagiarism and more sophisticated forms of academic fraud, expanded infrastructure of

academic publication channels and forms, combined with strong tendencies of

concentration in terms of research disciplines and outlets have now led to certain

undesirable developments. Next to the general business model operating according to

these parameters, the purpose, reliability and authenticity of circulated rankings and

grading systems of academic publishers as well as citation indexes will be critically

discussed in relation to new open access possibilities that start to question the outdated

structures of the established system.

Keywords: Plagiarism, Academic Publishing, Academic Rankings, Open Access

Publishing, Media Concentration

Introduction

The strong emphasis on education throughout the last century combined with a more

competitive globalized job market has led to a significantly increasing number of young

men and women hungry for post-graduate higher education certificates welcome to

the ever-expanding world of scientific publishing. Never before in history did society

produce such a huge number of higher educated people and higher educated

unemployed people in consequence. Representatives from all walks of life try to

unethically enhance their professional profiles and as shown by former German

Minister of Defense Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg (Schröder Thagard, 2011), neither

political integrity nor aristocratic descent seem to serve as a protection against the

plague of plagiarism (Eddy, 2013). Considered as one of the key features in evaluating

academic performance, the publication of scientific writing has become the main

element for graduates to set themselves apart from the growing mass of equally trained

uniform competitors (Kellermann, Guggenberger Weber, 2016). With the principles

of demand and supply being placed in favor of the publicity providers, the field of

academic publishing has the potential to turn into a battlefield on which one of the first

two casualties to be mourned might be morals and ethics (Born, 2003; Austin, 2008;

Bretag, 2013; Heckler Forde, 2015). Considering the significant amount of time and

money that is invested in unrightfully getting hold of an academic degree, universities

may ponder the possibility of offering a PhD in plagiarism as the next logical step, with

the successful candidates preferably employing their expertise to severely scrutinize the

academic output for forgery attempts.

PhD Plagiarists hijacking Degrees

Without a doubt, plagiarism is one of the most critical issues affecting the academic

world and hence, deserving of serious, immediate attention. It is alarming to see that

many MA or PhD students in our digital era have resorted to techniques that not only

question their academic integrity, but clearly demonstrate the inclination to submit work

that is not their own. Many labels can and have been attributed to its defense: a case of

human error, or carelessness; or perhaps an innocent example of the author not

knowing how to cite a passage properly. Indeed, a small amount can be the result of

such misdeameanors, but the question still stands whether this is a sufficient and

satisfactory argument. Furthermore, such blunders bring to mind the importance of the

draft processes before submission and publication, or at least, the briskness of

corrections once these errors are noticed. If overlooked, then it appears that the hallways

of academia can easily transform into haunting grounds regarding the future careers of

some aspiring scholars, including their supervisors. It would not be farfetched to

speculate that the damage can be extended to the Faculty, and as a result, affect the

reputation of the entire university.Yet, one thing is certain, the academic field has a

primary duty in demonstrating a professional attitude towards promoting sound research

and informing society. Needless to say, this should be conducted within ethical

boundaries, but certainly not to provide a window of opportunity for piracy, that is -

blatant copying, or outright copy-and-paste.

Of course, with the advancement of technology, the internet has re-shaped

communication to the point where it is deemed revolutionary. These changes have

entered society in different formats, from entertainment to business modules to playing

a central role in the education and research sectors. Gone is the physical journey to the

library. The strenuous search through bookshelves has been replaced by hand-held

instruments. These portable devices such as smart phones, notebooks, Ipods and Ipads

(with available wireless internet service) have not only reversed the natural or

traditional act of research, but has done so in great haste. The researcher to use an old

idiom has now cut to the chase. Volumes of books have been replaced by abundant

websites, initiated by a few key-words typed in Google search, or similar online motors.

Indeed, the availability of international resources to scholars anywhere in the world,

simultaneously, is advantageous on a tremendous scale and must be acknowledged as a

positive, necessary development. The argument of data collecting being both less time-

consuming and cost efficient cannot be dismissed. In particular, the immediacy of

question-based research in terms of online surveys provides direct electronic storage,

fast compilation and therefore offers a conveniency not reached in the traditional hand-

written method.

However, the drawbacks must also be open to discussion as plagiarism is fast becoming

one of the main problems in academia today. Barrett (2011) mentioned a survey named

`Incidents of cheating in universities, 2005/06 vs 2009/10'

published in The Telegraph

(2011, March, n.d.) conducted in over eighty universities which uncovered how

cheating has become a primary issue and is showing no signs of decreasing in their

country. In fact, during the 2009-10 academic year, over seventeen thousand incidents

were documented; sadly, an increase of 50 per cent in the past four years had been

noted. More alarming, however, is that the true figure is estimated to be much higher, as

details could only be provided on the most serious cases. The article asserts that

plagiarism accounted for the majority of the seventeen thousand incidents at British

universities during that period.

Schroth (2012) described university education as not only intellectual, but also one

concerning morals. Hence, the academic dishonesty of plagiarism should not be counted

as a mistake and should be viewed as a crime. He also quotes Kenneth Goldsmith from

the University of Penssylvania about the process of what is now called `patch writing'

a method of weaving together various fragments from other writers into a `tonally

cohesive whole'. That is, re-phrasing for example a Wikipedia entry with another

article, and merging it with their own additions. Goldsmith sums up his argument by

saying `For them the act of writing is literally moving language from one place to

another.'

As can be seen from both articles, plagiarism is likened to an epidemic and a plague to

convey the widespreadedness of this intellectual violation in Britain and the United

States. Yet, the problem cannot be seen as a territorial one, or a matter restricted to

western institutions. In truth, it is a worldwide headache in dedicated scholarly spheres

that demands immediate attention. The recent article in Times of India by B.K. Mishral

(2016) openly highlighted the controversy stirred by a PhD student at Patna University,

India. The research scholar, Kamal Raj Sapkota of Patna University, published an

article by D.C. Mohana of Bangalore University under his own name, and changed the

title to avoid detection. The academic council at Patna University cancelled the

registration of Sapkota, and has also called upon his supervisor D.N. Thakur to further

explain this harmful embarassment which threatens the university's reputation. It must

be noted that this case of plagiarism only came to light when Mohana complained that

his paper had been copied. One wonders, if Mohana had not realized this piracy of his

paper, whether Sapkota would have completed his PhD thesis as a promising young

academic with ease.

In Australia, the nuisance also has taken root and is growing in capacity as covered on

news.com.au in the article `Plagiarism on rise at Australian universities as academics

face pressure to pass international students' (2015, n.d.). The issue was nationalized on

television through the popular Four Corners news program broadcasted on the state-

funded ABC channel. One academic was documented as having said that there are a

group of students who shouldn't be allowed to graduate and another is on record for

expressing how `staggered' they were by the increase in plagiarism. Dr. Zena O'Connor

from the University of Sydney has admitted that there are some cases where plagiarism

constitutes up to eighty per cent, if not one hundred per cent of the paper. O'Connor

told Four Corners that `that level of extreme plagiarism I didn't see five or ten years

ago.'

Equally disturbing, in the field of academia, the plagiarist has nothing to offer. Their

research articles have no intrinsic value, as someone else's ideas are simply reproduced

and passed off as their own. As such, the situation in China warrants serious attention

due to the epidemic of plagiarism extending higher into the echelons of Chinese

scholars according to Peter Friedman's (2011) article for Forbes, titled `China's

Plagiarism Problem'. For example, the Vice President of South West Jiotong University

copied large portions of work from a Nobel-nominated Chinese economist for his

doctorate thesis, and the President of Wuhan University of Technology was charged

with stealing the work of a Chilean scientist in an article that had been submitted to a

national science committee. Alarmingly, students in China are commonly translating

Chinese sources into English or using copy-paste directly from Wikipedia. As a result,

there are some grim predictions concerning China's future economic growth if integrity

and innovative thoughts are not encouraged and that could `render this journey quite

difficult'.

One of the more intensively abysmal cases stems from Iran, where the situation has

truly become intolerable in the name of academic sincerity. Bypassing allegations of

President Hassan Rouhani's partially plagiarized doctorate thesis (Zarrinal, 2014), it

appears that Iran actually has a flourishing `dissertation bazaar' industry. These so-

called `groups' began by offering translation, tutoring and likewise services, but rapidly

evolved into masters and PhD dissertation writing for paying students. Reportedly, their

advertising can be seen along street walls, telephone poles, in areas nearby universities,

and even in places restricted to advertising such as traffic signs. It is further revealed

that most Iranian universities do not possess a codified set of rules concerning academic

integrity. Although the Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution penned a document

called Disciplinary Regulations for the Islamic Republic's Students of Higher

Education, apparently it does not cover plagiarized dissertations and no legislation

exists so far to condemn and penalize this unethical industry of `dissertation bazaar' in

their country.

Ghost writers in the sky...all along the ivory tower

Without any doubt, the mere existence of professionally organized ghostwriting

agencies must be considered as one of the most sophisticated and therefore most

refutable phenomenon related to unethical academic behavior. Based on a seemingly

legal but morally highly questionable business model, these enterprises according to

their own definition provide their customers with an impeccable written product of

academic nature in exchange for a considerable amount of money (White, 2016). As in

the case of China, the output of about 1800 full-time academic ghostwriters has been

evaluated as nearly 8000 papers in 2011, implying a total monetary amount of 4,46

million US-Dollar (Hu Wu, 2013). Not acting ghostly at all, Thomas Nemet, founder

of Zurich-based Acad Write, is regularly boasting in newspapers about his agency's

presence in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Great Britain, Canada, Australia and the

United States (Kainrath, 2015). Employing over 300 full-time and mostly PhD-holding

ghostwriters, the annual income of the company skyrocketed from around 300,000 Euro

in 2005 to about two million in 2015 (Kohlmaier, 2015).

Referring to shortened duration of studies due to the reforms of Bologna and the

resulting raised pressure for students as a major boost for success, the ghost writers'

legally withstanding claim of defense is that they just provide their clients with what

they ordered from them. Any responsibility of the rather possible illegal use of the work

is simply left to the moral and ethical standards of those who receive the finished

product. Nevertheless, as stated in an interview (Kainrath, 2015), the package usually

also includes a detailed briefing on how to properly present or convey the piece of work

to an audience if, for some strange reason you get caught up in a hearing of some

sort...

Ironically stating to provide work possibilities for degree-holding authors, these

organizations function as agents between academic aspirants who might lack time or

intellectual capacities paired with a strange ability to remain untangled by basic moral

or ethical concerns and economic strain in a fully discrete and anonymous transaction

process. It goes without saying that on the highly elaborated structure of organized

academic fraud the crime remains untraceable given the case that the perpetrator

manages to convince a committee that he or she is defending her own original work.

This implies that while on the level of a seminar paper the cheating attempt might

well pass undetected due to the undisputable content that the customers pay for (APA,

2016) members of academic examination committees are well advised to consider the

possibility that their candidate might not be the originator of the actual work and

therefore put a stronger emphasis on questioning techniques being capable to expose

such unacceptable efforts (Honig Bedi, 2012; Ison, 2015).

More than ever, the personal integrity of academics as well as their professional

expertise stands as the last line of defense between the already shaken integrity of

ethical and moral academic standards adhered to for centuries. Now, an ever-growing

wave of express-degree-holders march through our assaulted institutions (Mertz, 2010),

driven by the impulse to conform to the ever-increasing requirements of the modern job

market by any means necessary. The disastrous effects of the Bologna-process (Breit,

2016; Kellermann et. al, 2016; Knoll, 2017) turning institutions entrusted with higher

education into a usability-oriented research industry and passionate scientists into

academic administrators has been suggested to lead towards a devaluation of degrees

and as a consequence to a situation, in which once again origin and habitus decide

upon social mobility (Kellermann et. al, 2016).

Lost in Translation or The French Dis-Connection

While these destructive mechanisms might mainly be confined to the abusive usage of

those envisioning an unearned diploma down at the end of their strenuous studies, one

other aspect related to the profane market mechanisms in the academic context seems to

concern those who are, unfortunately, entrusted with disseminating knowledge

themselves. It's unsurprising to also find the dishonorable names of active Faculty

members coping in their very own way with the burden of the 'publish or perish'-dictate

(Nygaard, 2015), another group of academics might be capable to produce proper work

but due to a deficiency in English language skills struggles with being cut-off from the

international arena where real recognition is negotiated, due to exposure to a much

wider audience that is willingly or involuntarily agreeing upon and reinforcing the

undisputed Anglo-Saxon dominance (Enrique Hamel, 2007; Jenkins, 2013). Given a

system where international publications by far outweigh those of national (Altbach,

2004, p. 11; Adler Harzing, 2009, p. 76), this might impose a problem to proud and

brave bearers of native culture and language like the ones in France for instance,

where nevertheless academics and universities are more and more pushed into

internationalization lately to establish notable global presence in order to remain

competitive (

Evans Cosnefroy, 2013)

. Although the question can and should be

raised, how the term international should actually be defined within the context of

academic publications (Paasi, 2005, p. 776) does it need to be necessarily equivalent

with the use of English language or could a German publication that might be attributed

with an potential impact in Austria and Switzerland also be considered as such?

The fact remains, that the lack of Anglo-Saxon sources in the reference lists of many

French academics (

Bajerski, 2011, p. 9)

does not stem from mere patriotism but is

signifying that due to lingual deficiencies both the productive as well as the receptive

participation in the international academic discourse is still improvable (Lauby, 2013).

In particular, the state of intellectual dislocation (Flowerdew, 2000, p. 131), which

might be embedded and somehow safeguarded by a specific political system (Musselin,

2005)

that never really stopped to hold up a post-colonial self-perception of cultural

superiority (

Musselin, 2013)

adds to the fact that there are countries where the pressure

for academics to contribute to the international relevance of the national higher

education system can be felt stronger. Therefore, desperate academics often consult

non-credited translators (Harzing, 2012, p. 88), who provide their clients with a

seemingly competitive level of English and attest them with an illusionary international

impact (Lerman, 2001). As a consequence, the publishers of such deceptive work are to

make sure that the article or paper does not ask for the proper accreditation of an

unmentioned Anglo-Saxon acrobat, turning the assumably impeccable original

statement into one of international consideration.

To return back to the student side of things, the advent of Google Translate must have

been hailed as a true revelation among the rows of those who prefer to invest time in

more and more sophisticated cheating methods than their own proper work. One can

only count on the probable appearance of nonsensical literal translations in this case, but

to come up with undisputable proofs for the attempted fraud is extensively difficult,

especially if the origin of the source is outside the range of the Latin-based alphabet and

composed in Cyrillic or Arabic letters. Given the rather high possibility that the source

in question may have been generated by a convenient click on the scholarly offspring of

the world's most popular search engine is only emphasizing a far more complex and

problematic tendency that shall be dealt with later in this chapter. However, the wide-

scale application of cross-language plagiarism detection systems (Kent Salim, 2010)

should definitely help to handle that incredibly time-wasting activity for everybody

involved.

Polarizing publishing power The Questionable Quintet

Media concentration caused by global dynamics of the 21

century has turned out to be

one of the most dangerous and problematic developments in regard to democracy and

pluralism in modern society (Meier Trappel, 1998; Horwitz, 2005; Baker, 2002;

Baker, 2006; Van Cuilenber, 2007; Winseck, 2008). Even without thinking about the

outcome of combining ownership and political power as manifested in Italy by Silvio

Berlusconi (Ricolfi, 1997; Hibberd, 2007; Mancini, 2008) or infamous media-moguls

like Ted Turner or Rupert Murdoch (Josifides, 1997; Compaine Gomery, 2000), the

undisputed dominance of less than a handful of international news agencies providing

selected content for the vast majority of media organizations worldwide should be and

has been critically reviewed (Wasburn, 1995; Hafez, 1999; Bennett, 2004; Paterson,

2005; Arsenault Castells, 2008). The fact that a rather similar tendency within the

scope of academic publishing passes rather undetected and has not been questioned and

problematized by the same sharp scholars may be explained less by a lack of analytic

ability but maybe more a certain kind of dependency on the very same objects of what

would arguably be a daring but nevertheless quite necessary critical examination.

Recent evaluations related to the problem can be termed nothing else than an alarming

rude awakening to a long and deep scientific slumber that enabled a handful of clearly

profit-oriented enterprises to establish an undisputed oligopoly of ethically and morally

questionable nature.

If a quick glimpse on the surface of things of this blind spot reveals that only five big

players are accounting for half of all academic publications in scientific journals and

over seventy per cent in the fields of social sciences (

Larivière, Haustein Mongeon,

2015

), everybody interested in independent research and academic pluralism should

rightfully feel concerned about that. Should you already be or plan to be part of the

seventy per cent you may as well prefer to stick with business as usual and do another

study on social media and viral marketing possibilities. But who is this questionable

quintet comprised of, that without any doubt has a strong impact on the careers and

whereabouts of those busy with working up their way on the steep and slippery stairs of

the ivory tower?

While acknowledging the historical role of publishers for the dissemination of

knowledge over the last 350 years,

Larivière, Haustein and Mongeon (2015) strongly

question their necessity in the digital era. Nevertheless, by analyzing forty-five million

documents they disclose that within the last forty years five big players identified as

Sage, Springer, Taylor Francis, Wiley-Blackwell and Reed-Elsevier have been able to

control more than half of the market due to a series of rapid mergers and acquisitions. It

is noteworthy to mention that the researchers did not witness any increase in visibility

or citations after one of the purchased journals got owned by one of these major

publishers. They furthermore criticize the attested profit margins of about forty percent,

resulting from academics willingly providing them with free content and quality control

services in form of peer-review, only to buy a copy of the journal for an often ridiculous

amount of money. Questioning any real added value on behalf of the publishers, the

results provided by Larivière et al. ask for nothing else than a radical and long overdue

rethinking of these very structures of what could be termed a proper model of

voluntarily intellectual slavery.

Citation Indexes, Search Engine Science and competitive

disadvantages for marginalized disciplines

Considering what has been said about the Questionable Quintet in the last section of

this chapter it does not come as a surprise that these big players are also heavily

represented among what makes peers heartbeat skip regularly when being mentioned

SSCI, the Social Science Citation Index. Revered by mostly US-oriented scholars as a

kind of naturally formed Olympus-like measuring system of Academic performance, it

classifies among their European counterparts more often as a critically questioned

artificial construct lacking a clear and transparent mode of operation. In relation, Adler

and Harzing (2009) not only deemed the established system of academic rankings as

dysfunctional for encouraging domesticized research in limited fields of socially

accepted and requested areas, but furthermore criticized the rather exclusive and

random, fetish-like focus on journals in general and certain specific journals in

particular (p. 75). It has been mentioned (Kellermann et. al, 2016) that the idea of

universities as business corporations would result in substantial treatments regarding the

actual heart of the respective scientific matter being replaced by market-approved

applied research, considerations of perception and visibility, and the orientation towards

citation indexes and A-journals would lead to a self-castration of critical intelligence.

The institution of the SSCI, sometimes more correctly referred to as a product (Michel,

2011), necessarily tends to be guided more by the rules of the market than any ivory

idealism and to function more in favor for its very own US-based cooperators and

fellowship than any others (Mohsen, 2016). Once again, Sage is prominently featured

and controls most of the rather few listed journals dealing with Media and

Communication, which leads to another problematic tendency that it is to be held at

least to a certain degree directly accountable for. The fact that it features hundreds of

journals dedicated to fields such as Psychology or Economy compared to a very limited

number of publications open for submissions from Media and Communication

researchers which on top of it happen to be mostly controlled by one and the same

owner not only creates distinctive competitive disadvantages for the affected group of

researchers (Thomas, 1980) but furthermore bears the risk to simply marginalize whole

academic disciplines (Bell, 2010; Chou, 2014).

Now, it may spark some curiosity among contemporaries in an age significantly shaped

and distinctively dominated by media and internet as to why there is not much more

space, relevance and structural as well as project-based funding (Willmott, 2011)

granted to research that is trying to cope with the directly related fast and profound

changes the whole of humanity is subjected to in our digital times. The reason for the

significant under-representation of Media and Communication in the SSCI is definitely

not to be found in a lack of dedicated journals and publications unfortunately and for

some rather non-transparent reason the majority of them are deemed to not be

considered for inclusion. By 2011, in its 36

year of existence, COMMUNICATIONS 

The European Journal of Communication Research received the honor to be indexed by

SSCI as the first and only German-based publication representing the discipline at that

time (COMMUNICATIONS, Press Release, 2011). Is it because the impact of these

publications is not yet documented by a measuring system that would be acknowledged

by SSCI which would mean to openly strengthen a direct competitor for relevance and

reputation on the market or is it because these journals in question are being

controlled by independent owners such as universities or institutions of higher education

that are at least partly allowed to operate outside the mere market-based boundaries of

SSCI which would again classify them as indirect competitors for relevance and

reputation?

Talking about what turns out to be a highly competitive market, another huge player that

is tied to its very own influential machinery whose parameters tempt to be tempered

with by those who control it and those who use it, has recently entered the game. Due to

its specific expansive business approach, it perfectly demonstrates and underlines the

true nature of these indexes as a tailored product that is unable to objectively represent

and measure the impact of academic performance (Harzing, 2012) and as a paradox, is

nevertheless granted more and more relevance on the scientific job market (Nygaard,

2015). Initially attested with the potential to successfully challenge the very expensive

monopolist SSCI (Michel, 2011), Google Scholar's rather impressive expansive

development patterns have been verified in more recent studies (Harzing, 2014).

Although the system remains open for criticism in terms of unethical manipulation

possibilities regarding the generation of citations as well as a tendency of mistakenly

assorted dirty citations due to similarities in name or even fully intended. In terms of

performance, it has been certified a higher accuracy in assessing the impact of journals

than the ISI Web of Knowledge model (Harzing, 2013) due to the use of Hirsch's h-

index as a metric base (Harzing Van Der Wal, 2009).

Publishers' ratings and rankings...mixed plates of `tutti frutti'?

With the editorial contribution of academic publishers in the 21

century already being

questioned earlier in this chapter (

Larivière, Haustein Mongeon, 2015), it would be

interesting to know what would be the difference between a publisher that is generating

money from authors and others that offer cost-free publications.

Upon request, one of

the editors of German-based Peter Lang Academic Publishers basically stated that what

they provide for in exchange for a subsidy fee as compared to cost-free publishers is

their international standing. Which might pass as a fair enough business model,

considering that one might as well willingly pay for a German car as a status symbol

while a Japanese would basically do the job. On the other hand, saving up money to be

able to publish with a seemingly decent publisher according to a general agreement

based on reputation and rankings seems to be a bit contradictory to the idea of sharing

research on a more or less real time scale when it still has a chance to exert some

relevant and impact.

The problem starts when highly influential evaluation lists (Morris, Harvey Kelly,

2009) of academic publishers such as SENSE Ranking of Academic Publishers (The

Dutch Research School for Socio-Economic and Natural Sciences of the Environment,

2009) are being circulated, that rank Peter Lang equally with US-based Nova Science as

C-grade international and excellent national publishers. The latter has been deemed as

perhaps the most controversial long-established academic publisher in the world by

Harzing (2012, p. 80), as well as defined as widely known though controversial and

`unconventional' academic publisher (2012, p. 70). Librarian Jeffrey Beall who is

regularly providing an updated list of predatory publishers classified Nova Science as

not a predatory publisher, but it is a bottom-tier

one (Beall, 2015)

However, it has been

heavily refuted for generating content by using patchwork-writing techniques or simply

reprinting scholarly public domain material (Bade, 2007). Which is something that

similarly shunned academic publishing outfits are constantly confronted with

(Haug,

2013; Tin et al., 2014; Berger Cirasella, 2015)

, which do not show up in the

mentioned SENSE-ranking for instance.

To say the least, being confronted with such obvious inconsistencies concerning the

evaluated moral integrity of possible publishing partners leaves an ethically oriented

academic rather confused, if not making the evaluating bodies look slightly

questionable themselves. However, the appearance of the French-based Edition

L'Harmattan that is widely considered an established and highly reputed publisher

throughout continental Europe or Addis Ababa University Press (Addis Ababa

University Press, n.a.) with hardly more than five annual English publications in the

same category as Peter Lang and Nova Science just adds to the confusion and makes the

menu look like a mixed plate of tutti frutti, providing further substance to the debate of

rating versus ranking (Harzing et al., 2009). Needless to say, other lists that are

circulating do not necessarily agree with the one of SENSE. However, The City

University of Hong Kong, in an evaluation paper of publishers that serves the purpose

to define criteria for performance-based pay-review, grants Peter Lang as well as Nova

Science a rating of B+, but includes neither L'Harmattan nor Addis Ababa University

Press.

Furthermore, it is noteworthy to point out that the `quality' of a publisher can be

obviously assessed by different tools, with SENSE basically using the number of library

catalogue holdings as opposed to common survey data or the rather self-perpetuating

category of `reputation' (Jordy, McGrath Rutledge, 1999). In that regard it is

interesting to mention that, as

Zuccala, Guns, Cornacchia and Bod (2015, p. 1334) have

put it, (t)he

concept of `prestige', which is slightly different from `quality', is typically

associated with academic research advice and the selection of a university press by a

scholar who has written a new book. Appropriately, according to

Wager, Fiack, Graf,

Robinson and Rowlands (2014), science journal editors tend to be more concerned with

redundant publication than aspects of forgery, plagiarism and ghostwriting and

generally seem to underestimate the issue while at the same time over-estimate their

capacity to disclose such attempts. Unlike the normative obligations towards academic

excellence and social responsibility that has been attributed to and requested from them

(Jiang, 2006), the simple economic realities of this business model might ask for very

different practices. While the few major players like the big five monopolists or

elite

academic journal corporate conglomerates

(Harzing, 2012, p. 65) mentioned earlier

mainly concentrate on selling the most relevant research in the very field to the big-

budget market of universities and libraries

(

Larivière, Haustein, Mongeon, 2015),

mid- or low-range publishers would to a considerable degree need to rely on submission

fees and copy purchases by prospective authors.

Therefore, the question might be asked, how often such a publisher can afford to turn

down submissions that may fail to fully meet the requirements in terms of authenticity,

originality and integrity? As pointed out by Clark and Smith (2015), a certain type of

publishers are actually hiring staff from countries like Pakistan (APA, 2016) and India

in order to keep the low-cost profile. According to Harzing (2012, p. 87), a considerable

amount of questionable journals based in the developing world feature articles in

English, basically offering their authors to provide them with evidence for international

output by applying language and editing skills in exchange for submission fees. A

considerable amount of this type of articles lack of original ideas or reflective thinking

and can be summed up by some juggling of data doesn't make a proper paper. In

addition, the problems of hijacked journals (Dadkhah et al., 2015; Jalalian Dadkhah,

2015), manipulated impact-factors (Jalalian, 2015) and especially hired editorial board

members for the purpose to attract authors (Dadkhah, Tarhini, Lyashenko Jazi, 2015)

ask for more investigation and serve as just a few strong reasons to urgently re-think the

way academic research is evaluated (Jalalian Mahboobi, 2014) since this also might

affect the scientific rankings of whole countries (Dadkhah Maliszewski, 2015).

Jordy

et al. (1999) have discussed the meaning of a publisher's symbolic capital as one of the

very consistent but rather difficult to quantify criteria in that context and eventually

suggest a model that juxtaposes the perception of publishers among scholars with the

use of recorded citations which would basically lead back to the previous chapter.

Between open access and closed doors

Print journalism is still recovering from the blow that has been dealt to it by the arrival

of wide-scale digital media twenty years ago, but it has partly managed to successfully

migrate into the online market by dragging along old and new advertising clients as well

as faithful readerships willing to pay subscription fees (Kawamoto, 2003; Scott, 2005;

Pavlik, 2013; Herbert, 2015). The music industry for a long time ignored the web-

developments before going toe-to-toe with revolutionary, copyright-violating content

providers such as Napster and a final attempt to gain back lost grounds by taking over

or establishing legal digital distribution tools like i-tunes or streaming services like

Spotify (Reese, 2000; Rhoads Stager, 2001; Lam Tan, 2001;

Bhattacharjee, Gopal

Sanders, 2003;

McLeod, 2005). Even directing dinosaurs of the likes of Steven

Spielberg and George Lucas (Walker, 2013) have attested a different future for

traditional cinema in where the casual stroll to the movies would turn into a more

exclusive and occasional celebrated outing like a visit to a fine restaurant in the face

of the inevitable victory of web-based competitors like Netflix and the view-on-demand

principle (Savage, 2014).

While providers of content and space from all walks of publishing-life in their very own

speed dealt with, reacted and adjusted to the new realities of the digital era, the ivory

tower of academia seems to stand strong as a lone and solid landmark of a long lost

past, unimpressed with rather logical and purposeful technological possibilities such as

open access publishing which passes as nothing else but a perfectly habitual extension

for the digital native academic (Squire Jourian, 2015). Nevertheless, reality has it that

despite the huge technological changes in practical terms, the average academic is still

measured more by the reputation of their publishing house than the actual content of his

work which might be freely accessible on the internet (West Rich, 2012).

Using a rather sharp analogy, Kant's 'Die Kritik der reinen Vernunft' might as well have

been rejected due to the fact that he used the adjustable letter printing technology to

deliver his ideas instead of passing by the sacrosanct keepers of book-manufacturing

knowledge of the pre-Gutenberg galaxy. Interestingly enough, more innovative and

realistic academic publishers tend to favor going with the signs of the times themselves

(Bachmann, 2016), being fully in line with the Council of the European Union's

declaration from May 27

, 2016, that stresses that open science entails amongst others

open access to scientific publications and optimal reuse of research data, citizens

science, and research integrity (The Council of the European Union, 2016, p. 4). The

important question that cannot be avoided now anymore is 'Do we understand the

purpose of the publishing process as a means to make our work accessible as fast as

possible for the largest possible number of audience composed of the casually

interested and experts alike, there is no reason a publication cannot be peer-reviewed in

a public context, plain and transparent for everybody to follow or do we stick to a

rather inaccessible and potentially elitist system (Osterloh Frey, 2009) in which a vast

body of work is kept away from the public eye due to a severe and time-consuming

selection process that potentially encourages unethical behavior patterns (Cawley, 2011,

p. 206) and delays the publication of results (p. 209)?

The latter option can only be characterized as a loss for scientific research and the

corresponding ethical aspects of academic activity. Benefitting are the monopolized and

seemingly rightfully recognized publishers that have established a perfect business

model (

Larivière, Haustein, Mongeon, 2015)

of exploiting pressured academics by

selling their very own freely submitted content back to them for considerable

publication fees or copy item prices in a carefully constructed and widely unquestioned

frame of international relevance and impact (West Rich, 2012).

Further research needs to be done on the many prosperous businesses that have been

washed upon the shore of the scientific world with the wave of predatory publication

practices. Operating in the sense of academic tourism agencies, the role of `for-profit'-

conference organizers such as SGEM is asking for close inspection, as suggested by

Beall (2016). According to him, the company is based in Bulgaria and lures naïve

scholars with illegitimate use of logos from respected companies in the scholarly

publishing industry and self-styled, meaningless awards of Academic Conference

Excellence Certified Event into the heart of Europe with seemingly prestigious

happenings such as the SGEM

International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on

Social Sciences Arts.

Conclusion

For a profession that is widely attributed with the intersubjective systematic inquiry and

critical questioning of ideas, concepts and given structures, surprisingly little scholarly

attention by has been granted to its very own means and conditions of generating and

disseminating the research work that is central to their mutual evaluation. What was

structured, operated and organized for centuries by an historically grown network of

established and trusted publishers of elitist character has simply been swept away with

the advent of digitalization and to a certain degree democratization of knowledge in the

beginning of the 21

century. However, within the last few years some kind of

organized protest against inevitable disadvantages resulting from the common practice

of monopolized market structures has been forming. Up to date, more than 16.000

academics have signed an online-petition against the business practices of Elsevier (The

Cost of Knowledge, n.a)

As for the problems related to the various aspects of academic fraud, the way that has

been pursued the most severe might be the development of efficient detection programs

that constantly ask for further technological advancements and adjustments (Beasley,

2004;

Jenkins Helmore, 2009; Patel, Bakhtiyari, Taghavi, 2011

). Others approach

the issue from the side of students by advocating attempts to concentrate and gather data

on students' explanations for their unethical and immoral behavior, which can lead from

lack of interest to demotivated lecturers, unwilling to invest time and effort in proper

solutions

(Forgas, Negre, Rasco, Amengual, 2011)

Referring to the responsibilities of the lecturers as a starting point for their suggestions,

Gomez-Espinosa, Francisco and Moreno-Ger (2016) put the focus on developing a

more creative approach of designing tasks and activities to base the grades upon that

encourage students to not be in need for internet-based plagiarism techniques. Last but

not least the significant transformation from elite-producing institutions to highly under-

ressourced mass education facilities of universities since the 1990s will have to be taken

into consideration without a doubt (

Singh Remenyi, 2016, p. 4).

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Details

Pages
Type of Edition: Erstausgabe
Publication Year: 2017
ISBN (PDF): 9783960676348
ISBN (Softcover): 9783960671343
File size: 9.6 MB
Language: English
Publication date: 2017 (April)
Keywords: Media Ethics Discursive Space Social Responsibility National Development Orientalism Edward Snowden Plagiarism Whistleblowing Islam in Western Media Reza Aslan Press in Nigeria Justice in Russia Belorussian Cinema Madrasas New York Times

Mapping Media Responsibility. Contemporary Aspects of Morals, Ethics and Social Discourse

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Authors

Assist. Prof. Dr. Martin A. M. Gansinger (Editor)

Ayman Kole (Editor)